本研究探討臺灣華語語音障礙兒童之音段產製模式，聚焦於輔音與元音的產出類型、錯誤比例分布及語音因素影響情形。透過圖片命名及模仿實驗搜集13位平均年齡4.5歲的語音障礙兒童資料，並經由國際音標譯寫分析。結果顯示，輔音錯誤遠多於元音錯誤，這與先前研究一致。替代錯誤為最常見的錯誤類型，尤其集中於較為複雜的輔音，例如翹舌擦音（[ʂ], [ʐ]）和塞擦音（[tʂʰ], [tʂ]）。相比之下，元音的產製展現出高度正確率（PVC = 98%），僅少數替代錯誤發生於圓脣中高元音（[o]）與高央元音（[ɨ]）。研究結果表明，輔音錯誤的產生常與較高的發音複雜性以及在自然語言環境中較低頻率相關，例如高頻率的輔音如鼻音（[m], [n]）和滑音（[w], [j]）的產出準確率更高，這與基於使用的輸入學習模型相符合，反映了語音頻率及語言環境對於語音模式的影響，並且對於音素習得具有促進作用。此外，以歐幾里得距離測量的語音相似性與錯誤率的相關性較低，而發音複雜性對於錯誤產出展現出更好的預測力。本研究亦與跨語言研究比較，發現語言特定的趨勢，例如，由於華語具有較簡單的元音系統，其元音錯誤相對較少，並且偏好開音節結構的語言特性也導致遺漏錯誤模式常出現於音節尾。這些結果有助於理解臺灣華語語音障礙兒童的產製模式及語音錯誤類型，說明了發音複雜性、語音頻率及音位結構限制的影響性，對於語音發展理論及臨床診斷實務具有貢獻。

This study examines the segmental production patterns of Mandarin-speaking children in Taiwan with speech sound disorders (SSDs), focusing on the production accuracy and error distribution of consonants and vowels, as well as the impact of phonetic and linguistic factors. Data were collected from 13 children with SSDs (mean age: 4.5 years) through picture-naming and imitation tasks, and their responses were transcribed using the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). Results reveal that consonant errors far exceed vowel errors, consistent with previous research. Substitution errors are the most prevalent, particularly among complex consonants such as retroflex fricatives ([ʂ], [ʐ]) and affricates ([tʂʰ], [tʂ]). In contrast, vowels present high accuracy (PVC = 98%), with rare substitutions primarily involving mid-rounded vowels ([o]) and high central vowels ([ɨ]). These findings suggest that consonant errors are driven by greater articulatory complexity and reduced exposure to less frequent sounds in natural speech. The study identifies phoneme frequency as a significant factor, with high-frequency consonants such as nasals ([m], [n]) and glides ([w], [j]) showing greater production accuracy, consistent with usage-based learning models. Phonetic similarity, measured via Euclidean distance, exhibits weak correlations with error patterns, whereas articulatory complexity emerges as a more reliable predictor of errors. Cross-linguistic comparisons indicate language-specific trends, including fewer vowel errors in Mandarin due to its simpler vowel inventory and open-syllable preference. These preferences also lead to omission errors occurring more frequently in coda positions. These findings contribute to a nuanced understanding of SSDs in Mandarin-speaking children, highlighting the roles of articulatory complexity, phoneme frequency, and phonotactic constraints. The study offers theoretical contributions to phonological development and practical implications for clinical diagnosis and intervention.

Chapter 1. Introduction 1
1.1 Background and Definition of SSD 1
1.2 Mechanism and Causes of Speech Sound Errors 1
1.3 Scope and Classification of SSD 2
1.4 SSD and Co-occurring Language Disorders 4
1.5 Phonological Development and Error Patterns in SSD 5
1.6 Research Motivation and Questions 6
Chapter 2. Literature review 9
2.1 Speech Development in Typically Developing Children 9
2.1.1 The Developmental Process of Consonant Acquisition in the Universal Trends 9
2.1.2 The Developmental Process of Vowel Acquisition in the Universal Trends 13
2.1.3 The Developmental Process of Consonant Acquisition in Mandarin-Speaking Children 15
2.1.4 The Developmental Process of Vowel Acquisition in Mandarin-Speaking Children 19
2.2 Speech Development in Speech Sound Disordered Children 20
2.2.1 The Development of Consonant Production in Children with SSDs 20
2.2.2 The Development of Vowel Production in Children with SSDs 25
2.2.3 The Development of Consonant Production in Mandarin-Speaking Children with SSDs 27
2.2.4 The Development of Vowel Production in Mandarin-Speaking Children with SSDs 29
2.3 Mandarin Phones and Spoken Corpus 30
2.3.1 Mandarin Syllables and Phonetics 30
2.3.2 Adults’ Phone Counts in Connected Speech 31
2.4 Summary of Phonetic Acquisition and Speech Sound Disordered Children 37
Chapter 3. Methodology 38
3.1 Participants 38
3.2 Experimental Procedures 39
3.3 Materials 40
3.4 Transcription and Coding Procedures 40
3.5 Measurements 41
3.5.1 Phonetic Distance 41
3.6 Type of Speech Sound Errors 46
3.6.1 Speech Sound Errors in the Picture-Naming Experiment 47
3.6.2 Speech Sound Errors in the Imitation Experiment 48
3.7 Hypothesis and Predictions 49
Chapter 4. Results 51
4.1 Consonant Output Types and Proportions 51
4.1.1 Frequency of Errors in Consonant Output 52
4.1.2 Distribution of Consonants in Target Phone and Output Phone 54
4.1.3 Distribution of Consonant Output Type 57
4.1.4 Consonant Substitution Patterns 61
4.2 Individual Performance in Consonant Output 65
4.3 Phonetic Distance and Phone Pronunciation Errors in Consonants 67
4.4 Vowel Output Types and Proportions 71
4.4.1 Frequency of Errors in Vowel Output 72
4.4.2 Distribution of Vowels in Target Phone and Output Phone 74
4.4.3 Distribution of Vowel Output Type 75
4.4.5 Vowel Substitution Patterns 77
Chapter 5. Discussion and Conclusion 80
5.1 Consonant Production 80
5.2 Vowel Production 81
5.3 Patterns of Consonant and Vowel Errors: Articulatory and Phonological Influences 82
5.4 Phonotactic Constraints and Error Patterns 83
5.5 Phonetic Distance, Articulatory Complexity, and Error Patterns 84
5.6 The Role of Environmental Frequency 85
5.7 Conclusion 85
References 87
Appendix A. Experimental Stimuli 98

Anderson, J. (1987). The markedness differential hypothesis and syllable structure difficulty. Interlanguage phonology: The acquisition of a second language sound system, 279-291.
Anthony, J. L., Aghara, R. G., Dunkelberger, M. J., Anthony, T. I., Williams, J. M., & Zhang, Z. (2011). What factors place children with speech sound disorders at risk for reading problems?
Association, A. S.-L.-H. (2014). Speech sound disorders: Articulation and phonological processes. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association: Rockville, MD, USA.
Association, A. S.-L.-H. (2017). Speech sound disorders: Articulation and phonology: Overview. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association: Rockville, MD, USA.
Baker, E. (2006). Management of speech impairment in children: The journey so far and the road ahead. Advances in Speech Language Pathology, 8(3), 156-163.
Baker, E., & McLeod, S. (2011). Evidence-based practice for children with speech sound disorders: Part 1 narrative review.
Bates, E. (2014). The emergence of symbols: Cognition and communication in infancy. Academic Press.
Bauman-Wängler, J. A. (2004). Articulatory and phonological impairments: A clinical focus. Allyn and Bacon Boston.
Beers, W. (1995). The phonology of normally developing and language-impaired children.
Bishop, D. V., Nation, K., & Patterson, K. (2014). When words fail us: insights into language processing from developmental and acquired disorders. In (Vol. 369, pp. 20120403): The Royal Society.
Bond, Z., & Wilson, H. F. (1980). Acquisition of the voicing contrast by language-delayed and normal-speaking children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 23(1), 152-161.
Bortolini, U., & Leonard, L. B. (1991). The speech of phonologically disordered children acquiring Italian. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 5(1), 1-12.
Bowen, C. (2023). Children's speech sound disorders. John Wiley & Sons.
Breental, E., Bankson, J., & Flipson, J. (2009). Articulation and phonological disorder: Speech sound disorders in children. In: Boston, Mass: Pearson/Allya and Bacom.
Broomfield, J., & Dodd, B. (2004). Children with speech and language disability: caseload characteristics. International journal of language & communication disorders, 39(3), 303-324.
Bybee, J. (2003). Phonology and language use (Vol. 94). Cambridge University Press.
Cairns, H. S., & Williams, F. (1972). An analysis of the substitution errors of a group of standard English-speaking children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 15(4), 811-820.
Chao, Y. R. (1951). The Cantian ideolect: An analysis of the Chinese spoken by a twenty-eight-months-old child. University of California Publications in Semitic Philolology, 1, 27-44.
Chen, C.-C., Lin, K.-c., Wu, C.-Y., Chen, C.-L., Chen, C.-H., Chen, H.-C., Hong, W.-H., & Wong, A. M.-K. (2008). Acoustic study in mandarin-speaking children: developmental changes in vowel production. Chang Gung Med J, 31(5), 503-509.
Chen, L.-M., & Kent, R. D. (2010). Segmental development in Mandarin-learning infants. Journal of Child Language, 37, 341-371.
Cheng, J., Yan, Y., Gao, Y., Feng, X., Wang, Y., & Zhang, J. (2022). A study of production error analysis for Mandarin-speaking Children with Hearing Impairment. INTERSPEECH,
Chung, H., Nearey, T. M., Hodge, M., Pollock, K. E., & Tucker, B. V. (2012). Preliminary statistical pattern recognition methods in the study of vowels produced by children with and without speech sound disorders. Canadian Acoustics, 40(3), 18-19.
Crowe, K., & McLeod, S. (2020). Children's English consonant acquisition in the United States: A review. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 29(4), 2155-2169.
de Boysson-Bardies, B., & Vihman, M. M. (1991). Adaptation to language: Evidence from babbling and first words in four languages. Language, 67(2), 297-319.
Dinnsen, D. A. (1992). Variation in developing and fully developed phonetic inventories. Phonological development: Models, research, implications, 191-210.
Dodd, B. (2011). Differentiating speech delay from disorder: Does it matter? Topics in Language Disorders, 31(2), 96-111.
Dodd, B. (2013). Differential diagnosis and treatment of children with speech disorder. John Wiley & Sons.
Dodd, B. (2014). Differential diagnosis of pediatric speech sound disorder. Current Developmental Disorders Reports, 1, 189-196.
Dodd, B., & Bradford, A. (2000). A comparison of three therapy methods for children with different types of developmental phonological disorder. International journal of language & communication disorders, 35(2), 189-209.
Duffy, J. (2013). Motor Speech Disorders: Substrates, Differential Diagnosis, and Management, 3rd edn. St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby, 6.
Eckman, F. R. (1977). Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis. Language learning, 27(2), 315-330.
Edwards, M. L. (1974). Perception and production in child phonology: The testing of four hypotheses. Journal of Child Language, 1(2), 205-219.
Edwards, M. L., & Shriberg, L. D. (1983). Phonology: Applications in communicative disorders. (No Title).
Ferguson, C. A. (1977). Talking to children: Language input and acquisition. (No Title), 209.
Ferguson, C. A., & Farwell, C. B. (1973). Words and Sounds in Early Language Acquisition: English Initial Consonants in the First Fifty Words. Papers and Reports on Child Language Development, No. 6. Language, 51(2), n2.
Fox, A. V., & Dodd, B. (2001). Phonologically disordered German-speaking children.
Foy, J. G., & Mann, V. A. (2012). Speech production deficits in early readers: predictors of risk. Reading and writing, 25, 799-830.
Gierut, J. A. (1998). Treatment efficacy: Functional phonological disorders in children. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 41(1), S85-S100.
Gillon, G. T. (2017). Phonological awareness: From research to practice. Guilford Publications.
Gleason, J., & Ratner, N. (1998). Psycholinguistics.. USA. America. In: Harcourt, Inc.
Goldstein, B. A., & Pollock, K. E. (2000). Vowel errors in Spanish-speaking children with phonological disorders: A retrospective, comparative study. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 14(3), 217-234.
Greenberg, J. H., Ferguson, C. A., & Moravcsik, E. A. (1978). Universals of human language. (No Title).
Grunwell, P. (1981). The nature of phonological disability in children. (No Title).
Hare, G. (1983). Development at 2 Years. In J. V. I. S. P. Wong (Ed.), Phonological development in children: 18 to 72 months (pp. 55–88). Southern Illinois University Press.
Harley, T. A. (2006). Speech errors: psycholinguistic approach.
Hsu, H.-C. (1989). Phonological acquisition of Taiwanese: A longitudinal case study. Unpublished master's thesis, National Chin-Hwa University, Taiwan.
Hsu, J. H. (2003). A study of the stages of development and acquisition of Mandarin Chinese by children in Taiwan. Crane Publishing.
Ingram, D. (1979). Cross-linguistic evidence on the extent and limit of individual variation in phonological development. Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences,
Ingram, D. (1981). Procedures for the phonological analysis of children’s language.
Irwin, J. V., & Wong, S. P. (1983). Phonological development in children 18 to 72 months. (No Title).
Irwin, O. C. (1947). Infant speech: Consonant sounds according to manner of articulation. Journal of Speech Disorders, 12(4), 402-404.
Jakobson, R. (1941). Kindersprache, Aphasie, und allgemeine Lautgesetze. Uppsala. przedruk w Selected writings I, The Hague: Mouton (1962), 328-401.
Jakobson, R. (1968). Child language, aphasia and phonological universals. The Hague.
Jan, E., & MaryE, B. (2008). Methodological questions in studying phonological acquisition. Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, 22(12), 937-956.
Jeng, H.-h. (1979). The acquisition of Chinese phonology in relation to Jakobson's laws of irreversible solidarity. Proceedings of the 9th International Congress of Phonetic Sciences,
Jeng, H. (1985). A developmentalist view of child phonology. Studies in Language and Literature, 1, 1-29.
Jeng, J. Y. (2011). 學前兒童華語聲母之音韻歷程分析 [The phonological processes of syllable initial consonants spoken by the preschool children of Mandarin Chinese]. Journal of Special Education, 34, 135–169.
Jeng, J. Y. (2016). 學前兒童構音評估工具的發展 [The development of an articulation test for preschool Mandarin speaking children]. Kaohsiung Normal University Journal: Education and Social Sciences(40), 59-83.
Kent, R. D., & Bauer, H. R. (1985). Vocalizations of one-year-olds. Journal of Child Language, 12(3), 491-526.
Kent, R. D., & Vorperian, H. K. (1995). Development of the craniofacial-oral-laryngeal anatomy. (No Title).
Leitao, S., & Fletcher, J. (2004). Literacy outcomes for students with speech impairment: long‐term follow‐up. International journal of language & communication disorders, 39(2), 245-256.
Leitão, S., Fletcher, J., & Hogben, J. (2000). Speech impairment and literacy difficulties: Underlying links. The Educational and Developmental Psychologist, 17(1), 63-75.
Leitão, S., Hogben, J., & Fletcher, J. (1997). Phonological processing skills in speech and language impaired children. International journal of language & communication disorders, 32(2s), 91-111.
Leonard, L. B. (1985). Unusual and subtle phonological behavior in the speech of phonologically disordered children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 50(1), 4-13.
Leonard, L. B. (1996). Phonological impairment. The handbook of child language, 573-602.
Leonard, L. B., Schwartz, R. G., Swanson, L. A., & Frome Loeb, D. M. (1987). Some conditions that promote unusual phonological behaviour in children. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 1(1), 23-34.
Lewis, B. A., Avrich, A. A., Freebairn, L. A., Taylor, H. G., Iyengar, S. K., & Stein, C. M. (2011). Subtyping children with speech sound disorders by endophenotypes. Topics in Language Disorders, 31(2), 112-127.
Lewis, B. A., Shriberg, L. D., Freebairn, L. A., Hansen, A. J., Stein, C. M., Taylor, H. G., & Iyengar, S. K. (2006). The genetic bases of speech sound disorders: Evidence from spoken and written language.
Li, P. J.-K. (1977). Children language acquisition Mandarin phonology. In Y. C. L. T. C. T. R. Cheng (Ed.), Proceedings of the Symposium on Chinese Linguistics: 1977 Linguistic Institute of the Linguistic Society of America. Student Book.
Li, X. X., & To, C. K. (2017). A review of phonological development of Mandarin-speaking children. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 26(4), 1262-1278.
Limbrick, N., McCormack, J., & McLeod, S. (2013). Designs and decisions: The creation of informal measures for assessing speech production in children. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 15(3), 296-311.
Lin, B. G. (1983). 身心障礙兒童語言治療 [Language therapy for children with disabilities]. Taiwan Bookstore.
Lin, B. G., Huang, Y. Z., Huang, G. J., & Xuan, C. H. (2007). 修訂學前兒童語言障礙評量表第三階段成果報告 [The third stage research report on the revised Preschool Children Language Disorder Assessment Scale.].
Lin, B. G., & Lin, M. X. (1994). 學前兒童語言障礙評量表之編訂及其相關研究 [Compilation and related studies of the Preschool Children Language Disorder Assessment Scale]. Bulletin of Special Education, 10, 259–281.
Lin, L.-C., & Johnson, C. J. (2010). Phonological patterns in Mandarin–English bilingual children. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 24(4-5), 369-386.
Liu, H.-M., & Chien, H.-Y. (2020). Speech sound errors of Mandarin-speaking preschool children with co-occurring speech sound disorder and developmental language disorder. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 34(12), 1130-1148.
Liu, J. H., & Tsay, J. (2000). An optimality-theoretic analysis of Taiwanese consonant acquisition. Proceedings of the 7th International Symposium of Chinese Languages and Linguistics,
Liu, Y., Zhao, X., & Meng, Z. (2013). Developmental changes of vowel spectral properties for Mandarin-speaking children. 2013 IEEE International Conference on Signal Processing, Communication and Computing (ICSPCC 2013),
Locke, J. L., & Studdert-Kennedy, M. (1983). Phonological acquisition and change. Academic press New York.
Macken, M. A., & Ferguson, C. A. (2014). Cognitive aspects of phonological development: Model, evidence, and issues. In Children's language (pp. 255-282). Psychology Press.
Macrae, T., & Tyler, A. A. (2014). Speech abilities in preschool children with speech sound disorder with and without co-occurring language impairment. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 45(4), 302-313.
Magnusson, E. (1983). The phonology of language disordered children: Production, perception, and awareness.
McCormack, J., McLeod, S., McAllister, L., & Harrison, L. J. (2009). A systematic review of the association between childhood speech impairment and participation across the lifespan. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 11(2), 155-170.
McLeod, S., & Baker, E. (2017). Children's speech: An evidence-based approach to assessment and intervention.
McLeod, S., & Crowe, K. (2018). Children's consonant acquisition in 27 languages: A cross-linguistic review. American Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 27(4), 1546-1571.
McLeod, S., & Harrison, L. J. (2009). Epidemiology of speech and language impairment in a nationally representative sample of 4-to 5-year-old children.
Menn, L. (1983). Development of articulatory, phonetic, and phonological capabilities. Language production, 2, 3-50.
Menyuk, P. (1968). The role of distinctive features in children’s acquisition of phonology. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 11(1), 138-146.
Menyuk, P. (1971). The acquisition and development of language. (No Title).
Meza, P. R. (1983). Phonological analysis of Spanish utterances of highly unintelligible Mexican-American children San Diego State University].
Mowrer, D. E., & Burger, S. (1991). A comparative analysis of phonological acquisition of consonants in the speech of 2½-6-year-old Xhosa-and English-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 5(2), 139-164.
Mullen, R., & Schooling, T. (2010). The national outcomes measurement system for pediatric speech-language pathology.
Namasivayam, A. K., Coleman, D., O’Dwyer, A., & Van Lieshout, P. (2020). Speech sound disorders in children: An articulatory phonology perspective. Frontiers in psychology, 10, 2998.
Nathan, L., Stackhouse, J., & Goulandris, N. (1998). Speech processing abilities in children with speech vs speech and language difficulties. International journal of language & communication disorders, 33(S1), 457-462.
Nathan, L., Stackhouse, J., Goulandris, N., & Snowling, M. J. (2004). The development of early literacy skills among children with speech difficulties.
Nettelbladt, U. (1983). Developmental studies of dysphonology in children.
Ohala, J. J. (1975). How a study of sound change can aid in automatic speech recognition. Speech Communication, 3, 299-302.
Ohala, J. J. (1980). The application of phonological universals in speech pathology. In Speech and Language (Vol. 3, pp. 75-97). Elsevier.
Olmsted, D. (1971). Out of the mouth of babes: earliest stages in language acquisition. The Hague & Paris: Mouton.
Paschall, L. (1983). Development at 18 months. In W. S. Irwin JV (Ed.), Phonological Development in Children 18 to 72 Months (pp. pp. 27–54). Southern Illinois University Press.
Peterson, R. L., McGrath, L. M., Smith, S. D., & Pennington, B. F. (2007). Neuropsychology and genetics of speech, language, and literacy disorders. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 54(3), 543-561.
Peterson, R. L., Pennington, B. F., Shriberg, L. D., & Boada, R. (2009). What influences literacy outcome in children with speech sound disorder?
Pollock, K. (2002). Identification of vowel errors: Methodological issues and preliminary data from the Memphis Vowel Project. Vowel disorders, 83-113.
Pollock, K. E., & Berni, M. C. (2003). Incidence of non‐rhotic vowel errors in children: Data from the Memphis Vowel Project. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 17(4-5), 393-401.
Prather, E. M., Hedrick, D. L., & Kern, C. A. (1975). Articulation development in children aged two to four years. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 40(2), 179-191.
Preston, J., & Edwards, M. L. (2010). Phonological awareness and types of sound errors in preschoolers with speech sound disorders.
Preston, J. L., Hull, M., & Edwards, M. L. (2013). Preschool speech error patterns predict articulation and phonological awareness outcomes in children with histories of speech sound disorders.
Ramus, F., Nespor, M., & Mehler, J. (1999). Correlates of linguistic rhythm in the speech signal. Cognition, 73(3), 265-292.
Randolph, C. C. (2017). Overview of phonological disorders: The language-based speech sound disorder. Journal of Phonetics & Audiology, 3(01), 1-3.
Reynolds, J. (1990). Abnormal vowel patterns in phonological disorder: Some data and a hypothesis. International journal of language & communication disorders, 25(2), 115-148.
Rvachew, S., Chiang, P.-Y., & Evans, N. (2007). Characteristics of speech errors produced by children with and without delayed phonological awareness skills.
Sander, E. K. (1972). When are speech sounds learned? Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 37(1), 55-63.
Selby, J. C., Robb, M. P., & Gilbert, H. R. (2000). Normal vowel articulations between 15 and 36 months of age. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 14(4), 255-265.
Shiu, H.-S. (1990). The phonological acquisition by Mandarin-speaking children: A longitudinal case study on children from 9 months through three years old. Unpublished MA thesis, Taiwan Normal University.
Shriberg, L. D. (1980). Developmental phonological disorders. Introduction to communicative disorders, 262-309.
Shriberg, L. D., Fourakis, M., Hall, S. D., Karlsson, H. B., Lohmeier, H. L., McSweeny, J. L., Potter, N. L., Scheer-Cohen, A. R., Strand, E. A., & Tilkens, C. M. (2010). Extensions to the speech disorders classification system (SDCS). Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 24(10), 795-824.
Shriberg, L. D., & Kwiatkowski, J. (1994). Developmental phonological disorders I: A clinical profile. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 37(5), 1100-1126.
Shriberg, L. D., Kwiatkowski, J., Best, S., Terselic-Weber, B., & Hengst, J. (1986). Characteristics of children with phonologic disorders of unknown origin. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 51(2), 140-161.
Shriberg, L. D., Kwiatkowski, J., & Gruber, F. A. (1994). Developmental phonological disorders II: Short-term speech-sound normalization. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 37(5), 1127-1150.
Smith, N. V. (1973). The Acquisition of Phonology: A case study. In: Cambridge University Press.
So, L. K., & Dodd, B. J. (1994). Phonologically disordered Cantonese-speaking children. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 8(3), 235-255.
So, L. K., & Dodd, B. J. (1995). The acquisition of phonology by Cantonese-speaking children. Journal of Child Language, 22(3), 473-495.
Sosa, A. (2016). Lexical considerations in the treatment of speech sound disorders in children. Perspectives of the ASHA Special Interest Groups, 1(1), 57-65.
Stackhouse, J., & Wells, B. (1997). Children's speech and literacy difficulties: A psycholinguistic framework.
Stackhouse, J., Wells, B., Pascoe, M., & Rees, R. (2002). From phonological therapy to phonological awareness. Seminars in speech and language,
Stoel-Gammon, C. (1985). Phonetic inventories, 15–24 months: A longitudinal study. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 28(4), 505-512.
Stoel-Gammon, C., & Dunn, C. (1985). Normal and disordered phonology in children. University Park Press.
Stoel-Gammon, C., & Herrington, P. B. (1990). Vowel systems of normally developing and phonologically disordered children. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 4(2), 145-160.
Stoel‐Gammon, C., & Pollock, K. (2008). Vowel development and disorders. The handbook of clinical linguistics, 525-548.
Su, A. T. (1985). The acquisition of Mandarin phonology by Taiwanese children. Unpublished MA thesis, Fu Jen Catholic University.
Su, Y. Q., & Cai, S. J. (2007). 習得國語人工電子耳幼童與正常聽力兒童語言發展的縱觀研究 (3/3) [A longitudinal study on language development in children with cochlear implants and normal hearing children learning Mandarin (3/3)].
Templin, M. C. (1957). Certain language skills in children; their development and interrelationships.
Terband, H., Maassen, B., & Maas, E. (2019). A psycholinguistic framework for diagnosis and treatment planning of developmental speech disorders. Folia Phoniatrica et Logopaedica, 71(5-6), 216-227.
Tse, C.-y. (1991). The acquisition process of Cantonese phonology: A case study. HKU Theses Online (HKUTO).
Tyler, A. (2010). Subgroups, comorbidity, and treatment implications. Speech sound disorders in children: In honor of Lawrence D. Shriberg, 71-92.
Tyler, A. A. (2011). Speech Sound Disorders in Children: Exploring Subgroups Foreword. In (Vol. 31, pp. 93-95): LIPPINCOTT WILLIAMS & WILKINS 530 WALNUT ST, PHILADELPHIA, PA 19106-3621 USA.
Tyler, A. A., Lewis, K. E., Haskill, A., & Tolbert, L. C. (2003). Outcomes of different speech and language goal attack strategies.
Vakulenko, M. (2021). Calculation of phonetic distances between speech sounds. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 28(3), 223-236.
Vakulenko, M. (2023). Unified Parametrization of Phonetic Features and Numerical Calculation of Phonetic Distances between Speech Sounds. Journal of Quantitative Linguistics, 30(1), 67-85.
Vance, M., Stackhouse, J., & Wells, B. (2005). Speech‐production skills in children aged 3–7 years. International journal of language & communication disorders, 40(1), 29-48.
Vihman, M. M., Macken, M. A., Miller, R., Simmons, H., & Miller, J. (1985). From babbling to speech: A re-assessment of the continuity issue. Language, 397-445.
Vorperian, H. K., & Kent, R. D. (2007). Vowel acoustic space development in children: A synthesis of acoustic and anatomic data.
Wan, I.-P. (2007). Mandarin speech errors into phonological patterns. Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 35(2), 185-224.
Wan, I.-P., Allassonniere-Tang, M., & Yu, P. (2024). Early Segmental Production in Thai Preschool Children Learning Mandarin. International Journal of Asian Language Processing, 34(02), 2450005.
Wan, I.-P., Chang, C.-W., Lee, C., & Yu, P. (To appear). Probability distributions of sounds and phonotactics in Taiwan Mandarin syllables. Proceedings of the 38th Pacific Asia Conference on Language, Information and Computation.
Wan, I.-P., & Jaeger, J. J. (2003). The phonological representation of Taiwan Mandarin vowels: A psycholinguistic study. Journal of East Asian Linguistics, 12(3), 205-257.
Wang, J., Wang, L., Xu, Q., Hou, Y., Wang, W., Wang, X., Zhang, L., Jin, C., Wang, X., & Li, X. (2021). Characteristics of consonant among children with speech sound disorder. Chinese Journal of Pediatrics, 59(6), 478-483.
Wang, N. M., Fei, P. N., Huang, X., & Chen, J. W. (1984). 三歲至六歲學齡前兒童國語語音發展結構 [The structure of Mandarin phonological development in preschool children aged three to six]. Journal of the Speech-Language-Hearing Association, 1(16543), 12-17.
Waring, R., Eadie, P., Rickard Liow, S., & Dodd, B. (2018). The phonological memory profile of preschool children who make atypical speech sound errors. Clinical Linguistics & Phonetics, 32(1), 28-45.
Waring, R., & Knight, R. (2013). How should children with speech sound disorders be classified? A review and critical evaluation of current classification systems. International journal of language & communication disorders, 48(1), 25-40.
Watson, J., Bates, S., Sinclair, A., & Hewlett, N. (1994). Unusual vowel systems in some Edinburgh children with phonological disorder. American Speech-Language-Hearing Association Convention, New Orleans,
Wellman, B. L., Case, I. M., Mengert, I. G., & Bradbury, D. E. (1931). Speech sounds by young children.
Wilcox, L. D., & Anderson, R. T. (1998). Distinguishing between phonological difference and disorder in children who speak African-American vernacular English: An experimental testing instrument. Journal of communication disorders, 31(4), 315-335.
Wu, X. L. (1999). 構音與音韻障礙的治療 [Treatment of articulation and phonological disorders]. In J. X. Zeng (Ed.), Fundamentals of Speech Pathology (Vol. 3). Psychological Publishing.
Yang, J., Brown, E., Fox, R. A., & Xu, L. (2015). Acoustic properties of vowel production in prelingually deafened Mandarin-speaking children with cochlear implants. The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 138(5), 2791-2799.
Yang, J., & Fox, R. A. (2019). Acoustic development of vowel production in native Mandarin-speaking children. Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 49(1), 33-51.
Yang, J., Fox, R. A., & Jacewicz, E. (2015). Vowel development in an emergent Mandarin-English bilingual child: A longitudinal study. Journal of Child Language, 42(5), 1125-1145.
Yang, J., & Xu, L. (2017). Mandarin compound vowels produced by prelingually deafened children with cochlear implants. International journal of pediatric otorhinolaryngology, 97, 143-149.
Zhang, C., Li, M., Yu, J., & Liu, C. (2021). Development of Mandarin Chinese vowel perception in young children with normal hearing and cochlear implants. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 64(11), 4485-4494.
Zhang, C. F., & Zhong, Y. M. (1986). 學前兒童語言發展量表之修訂及其相關研究 [Revision and related studies of the Preschool Children Language Development Scale]. Bulletin of Special Education, 1686(26851), 37.
Zhao, L. F., & Lin, B. G. (1987). 台北市國小學童語言障礙及構音能力調查研究 [A study on speech and articulation disorders among elementary school students in Taipei]. Special Education Quarterly, 23, 30-35.
Zhu, H., & Dodd, B. (2000). The phonological acquisition of Putonghua (modern standard Chinese). Journal of Child Language, 27(1), 3-42.