以華語為第二語言學習者之漢字習得研究

Abstract

這幾年全世界興起一股中文熱，學習華語的外籍生有逐漸增加的趨勢。為因應此一現象，對於不同母語學習者學習情況之研究儼然成為一種新課題。然而學習者對於漢字的掌握程度也直接影響到華語的學習，因此漢字習得被視為學習華語的一大關鍵。\n此外，以華語作為第二語言之學習，有無漢字背景直接影響到漢字習得之方法、策略及效果。以華語為第二語言學習者在漢字的習得背景上可區分為兩大類：其一為漢字圈學習者，如日本、韓國學習者；其二為非漢字圈學習者，指完全沒有漢字背景，如英國、美國、西班牙等學習者。針對不同背景的學習者，在教學內容與教學方法的選擇和應用上也不同。在此之前，加強漢字習得的針對性研究是目前漢字教學研究的一個必然要求和主要趨勢。\n然而，當前對外漢字教學主要相關研究多集中在漢字本體與漢字教學方面，相較之下關於漢字習得的研究較為有限。除此之外，前人漢字習得相關研究中多為單一背景學習者，對於不同背景的學習者以及與第一語言為漢字之學習者之關連性較少提及。\n且以上多為理論性的探討，較少經由實驗來驗證。有鑑於此，本論文在已有研究的基礎上從事更深入的討論，研究結果分述如下：\n（一） 第一語言學習者之漢字習得：\n本論文將使用漢字之日、韓母語者一併納入第一語言學習者之考量，並深入研究中國、台灣、日本與韓國母語者之漢字習得，包括漢字習得要求、漢字指導法及漢字習得成效等。結果發現中文母語者的研究多集中於兒童漢字習得問題，並強調識字量應大於寫字量，在教學上採取「識寫分流」的策略。漢字母語者中日本有明確之漢字習得數量及字表規定，在教學上亦有主流之教學策略，與第一語言學習者相同的是均採取「識寫分流」的大方向。但韓國僅訂出字量、提出字表，但未區分識字量與寫字量。\n（二） 第二語言學習者之漢字習得：\n本論文考察華語地區及非華語地區以華語為第二語言學習者之漢字習得，進\nii\n而分析比較華語地區的漢字習得要求及漢字指導法。\n華語地區以中國大陸及台灣為例，結果發現兩岸對於以華語為第二語言學習者的漢字習得要求相去不遠。但相較於中國大陸陸續提出對外漢語教學的最高指導原則，包括《漢語水平詞彙與漢字等級大綱》、《漢語水平標準與語法等級大綱》以及《國際漢語教學通用課程大綱》等，但台灣尚未定出統一標準與大綱。漢字指導多認同筆劃、部件、部首等漢字本體相關知識在教學與習得上都有一定的效果，有助於學習者識記漢字。至於其他的漢字相關知識，多止於知識的說明，對於漢字習得的幫助有限。但多採取「識寫同步」的方式。\n非華語地區則選取法國、美國及日本作為探討重點，選取的原則包括：對漢字習得有具體規範或要求者、具有指標性作用者、能夠相互對照者。結果發現法國教育部對漢字習得要求有明確的規範，並提出區分識字量與寫字量的概念，已採取希望漢字教學與華語教學合而為一。對於一般母語者來說，識讀漢字的機會遠大於書寫漢字的機會，同時也是中國語文啟蒙教育的傳統，然而卻是與華語地區華語入門教材完全不同的模式。\n美國外語教師協會（ACTFL, American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages）雖然針對語言教學提出了5C理論，但對於中文相較於其他語言的特殊性—漢字卻未加以重視與規範。針對美國學習者漢字難學的印象，印京華提出「分進合擊」的策略。在漢字指導方面，漢字知識的說明成為重點，採取的是「識寫同步」的方式。\n日本文部省（教育部）對於中文教學甚至是漢字教學並無統一的教學大綱，但中國語學會提出的《高校中國語教育のめやす》（高中中國語教育的目標）以及《中國語初級段階學習指導ガイドライン》（中國語初級階段學習指導大綱）乃是以語法為經、詞彙為緯制定規範，不見對漢字的要求。在漢字指導法方面，日本中國語教材中幾乎不談漢字，將漢字視為學習者既有的知識。因此多採取「訓讀法」，指的是將在閱讀中文時採取以日文漢字來理解中文漢字的方法。\n（三） 第一語言、第二語言漢字習得之比較：\n在先備知識方面，母語者的口語能力先於漢字識寫能力，漢字圈學習者的口語能力為零但有一定的漢字基礎，第二語言學習者則均為零。\n在對漢字習得的要求方面，中文母語者應習得的漢字數量多、時間短，漢字圈學習者漢字習得數量居次、時間亦居次，最後數量少、時間長的自然是第二語言學習者。且第一語言學習者多採取「識寫分流」策略，以提高閱讀能力。第二語言學習者僅法國採取相同方式，其餘多為「識寫同步」。\n最後在漢字指導方面，第一語言學習者以標音符號（拼音、註音符號或假名）作為語言與文字的過渡階段，小學低年級教材中的漢字與標音符號（拼音、註音符號或假名）並列的方式呈現，以鼓勵學習者大量閱讀。漢字母語者則可以假名\niii\n或拼音文字代替漢字。兩者多採取隨文識字的方式指導漢字。第二語言學習者亦採取隨文識字的方式，但課文中出現的漢字直接按照語言表達順序出現。第一語言學習者，中國、台灣及日本重視漢字知識與漢字能力，韓國則較重視漢字知識。第二語言學習者較重視漢字運用的能力。\n相同點在於所需習得者皆為漢字，因此漢字本體是不變的，且根據認知心理來說順序由易到難，再加上無論是第一語言學習者或是第二語言學習者來說掌握基本的常用字均有所助益。\n（四）漢字習得實驗：識寫分流\n本論文由第一語言漢字習得研究的啟發作為第二語言漢字習得之借鏡，真正落實在第二語言漢字習得與教學上。亦即將漢字母語地區，包括中國大陸、台灣、日本及韓國所採取之「識寫分流」策略實際運用在第二語言學習者漢字習得上，用以提高第二語言學習者的漢字習得效率。\n實驗組採取「識寫分流」之教學原則與策略；對照組則採取「識寫同步」的一般教學。結果發現實驗組在漢字書寫方面的成就略高於對照組，而在漢字識讀方面的成就則有較為顯著的差異。這顯示「識寫分流」教學策略對於學生在漢字識寫能力的確有正面的影響，無論是識字量或寫字量都較對照組高。\n以上系統性地探討漢字習得之相關問題，包括漢字習得過程、中日韓母語者漢字習得之差異、第一語言學習者與第二語言學習者之差異等問題，並進行「識寫分流」之漢字習得實驗，其成果可供漢字習得與漢字教學研究者參考。

In recent years, Chinese language learning rapidly increased in almost every place in the world. Nowadays, Chinese language learning takes place in different countries and cultural environments facing divergence of learners』 linguistic and educational background. The differences of language learners』 environment will be a key point in future TCSL research (Teaching Chinese as a Second Language). Chinese character acquisition plays a great role in acquiring crucial linguistic competences in Chinese. Character acquisition is a sine qua non condition for an effective acquisition process of various linguistic competences like reading and writing competence and it is crucial for understanding the morphological structure of the Chinese language. \nSome second language learners of Chinese (L2 learners) may already be familiar with Chinese characters through their educational background ‒ for example, students from Japan and Korea or some heritage students from oversea ‒, others not. Familiarity with the Chinese writing system splits Chinese language learners in two groups: Some L2 learners belong to a so-called 「Chinese character educational sphere」, these learners are mainly students from Japan and Korea; correspondingly, we may group the other learners according their educational background in a second group which may be called 「non Chinese character educational sphere」; these are learners from America, Europe and other countries of the world who are not familiar with the basic principles of composition of the Chinese characters and are not used to learn and use Chinese characters for encoding and decoding language. L2 learners in the Chinese language who belong to the 「Chinese character educational sphere」 acquired Chinese character recognition and writing skills through their first language (L1) educational background. In some way, these L2 learners of the Chinese language can be considered as L1 learners in regard to their Chinese character recognition and writing skills, but not in regard to the relationship between grapheme and sound in Chinese and only partly to the relationship between grapheme and morpheme and morpheme and meaning in Chinese. \nUp to now, the great part of studies in Chinese character acquisition focuses on composition rules of Chinese characters and on pedagogical strategies. Studies in acquisition processes are quite rare. Most studies do not differ between the educational background of language learners. The impact of linguistic background knowledge on Chinese character acquisition still has to be studied in more detail. \nAbove all, the methodology of the great part of studies on Chinese character acquisition as well as pedagogical models are exclusively theoretically driven; they do not pursuit an experimental approach to found their results which, however, is quite essential to make acquisition processes observable. To sum up, research in Chinese character acquisition still stands at square one.\nThe present study is divided in four parts. The first part discusses Chinese character acquisition in the 「Chinese character educational sphere」. The second part discusses Chinese character acquisition in second language teaching. The third part draws a comparison between the acquisition models in both realms. The fourth part discusses results from experimental research of Chinese character acquisition in second language learning.\n\nI Chinese character acquisition and teaching in Taiwan, China, Hong Kong, Japan and Korea\nIf we take a look at their shape, Chinese characters seem to be almost the same ‒ but methods, aims, and requirements of Chinese character acquisition differ widely in countries where Chinese characters are used to express the native language. The present part analyses the different requirements on Chinese character acquisition in elementary schools, the predominant teaching methods and research in Character acquisition for L1 learners. In short, looking at the curricula of Chinese character teaching in different countries, we will find a divergence in requirements for reading and writing competences in Taiwan and China as well as in the pedagogical aims. Teaching culture, for example, lies in the focus of teaching Chinese characters in Korea. Detailed surveys of character acquisition in Japanese elementary schools allows inspection into L1 acquisition problems.\n\nII Chinese character acquisition in TCSL\nStandards for Chinese character acquisition differ in various countries. In China, demands are outlined in combination with HSK (Chinese Proficiency Test) requirements. Taiwan lacks clear standards. Teaching methods which focus on stroke order recognition, standard graphic component analysis, and radical recognition are recommended. In general, 「concurrent teaching approaches」 will be recommended, that means that requirements for L2 proficiency in reading and writing are identical and acquisition should be done simultaneously.\nFrance, on the other hand, has quite different standards and methods. Character recognition and writing proficiency vary. On the contrary, The ACTFL standards in the US stresses concurrent acquisition of reading and writing proficiency in Chinese. There are no explicit standards defined for L2 Chinese character acquisition in Japan but standards are assigned for other L2 linguistic proficiencies in Chinese like grammatical and lexical knowledge.\n\nIII Comparisons in Chinese character acquisition\nA comparison of standards, teaching methods, etc provides insight in different forms of Chinese character acquisition. Some main results are listed below:\n Linguistic background between L1 and L2 learners vary: Learners of the 「Chinese character educational sphere」 have an indigenous knowledge in 「grapheme-sound recognition」. Language units like words and morphemes are recognized in characters by Chinese L1 learners, Japanese L1 learners do the same in a Kanji. In contrast, L2 learners of Chinese usually acquire language knowledge in combination with Character recognition. \n Scope of character acquisition greatly vary: A comparison between the standard requirements of Chinese character acquisition for L1 and L2 learners in various countries shows great differences in amount and time as well as in recommended teaching methods. \n Different auxiliary means: In L1 and L2 countries, the usage of auxiliary transcription systems (Pīnyīn, Bopomofo, Kana systems, Hangul) for Chinese character acquisition differ widely.\n\nIV Experiments in Chinese character acquisition\nExperiments are done to show the effects of adopting teaching methods for Taiwanese L1 learners for foreign L2 learners in Taiwan. A focus lies on adopting a teaching approach which favors 「sequential acquisition」 of Chinese character that means that the requirements for reading proficiency are higher than for writing proficiency. L2 learners are grouped in an experimental group and in an control group. In the control group, accustomed teaching methods are used and requirements in character acquisition does not differ for writing and reading proficiency. The experimental group are taught by adopting teaching approaches favoring 「sequential acquisition」. \nIn general, results show that learners of the experimental group show better performance in writing and reading as in motivation as well.