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題名 兒童在親子對話中重新請求之研究
A Study of Children`s Request Reformulation in Mother-Child Conversation
作者 古雅婷
Ku,Ya ting
貢獻者 黃瓊之
Huang,Chiung chih
古雅婷
Ku,Ya ting
關鍵詞 兒童語言習得
請求
角色取代能力
重新請求
child language acquisition
request
perspective-taking ability
request reformulation
日期 2007
上傳時間 17-九月-2009 16:26:28 (UTC+8)
摘要 本篇論文的目的在於探討兒童在親子對話中行使重新請求 (request reformulation) 的情況，研究問題如下: 1.兒童採取哪些重新請求的策略以達到請求的目的? 2.親子對話中，常見的重新請求的序列模式（patterns of request reformulation sequences）為何？ 2.如何從兒童重新請求的使用反映出角色取代能力 (perspective-taking ability )的發展? 研究對象為一位三歲和一位六歲的男孩。研究結果顯示隨著年紀的增長，兒童能使用更多元的重新請求策略。研究也發現造成請求失敗的原因隨著不同年齡的兒童有所差異。隨著年紀的增長，兒童面臨的失敗原因和挑戰日漸複雜、困難，兒童會依據不同的失敗原因採取重新請求的策略。最後，研究顯示不同年齡兒童採取的重新請求策略可以展現出他們不同階段的角色取代能力的發展。三歲的兒童無法跳脫自己的觀點而從別人的角度來看待自己的請求，所以重新請求著重於強調自己的需求。六歲的兒童較能夠從別人的立場看待自己的請求，所以他較有能力在考量對方的觀點和利益之後採用對雙方有益的策略。
The purpose of this study is to explore how children at different age make reformulation to compensate for an unsuccessful request. Firstly, we aim to investigate what reformulation strategies children apply and the patterns of reformulation sequences. Second, we further aim to explore how children’s use of reformulation strategies reveals the development of perspective-taking ability. The data analyzed are natural conversations of two Mandarin-speaking mother-child dyads. Subjects in this present study are two male children. One subject is three years and six months old and the other is six years old. The strategies of request reformulation adopted in this study are mainly based on Levin and Rubin’s (1984) categorization. The results show that children would have a greater variety of reformulation strategies as they get older. Furthermore, aggravation and explanation are both children’s main strategies of reformulation. With the growth of age, children decrease the use of aggravation and increase the use of bargain and mitigation. Furthermore, the results of reformulation sequences reveal that the two children are confronted with different causes of the failure to obtain compliance, which influences their adoption of reformulation strategies. The younger child faced the communicative breakdown and his mother’s ignorance while the older child encountered his mother’s queries and disagreements. Finally, the two children’s application of reformulation strategies revealed their different ability to take the other’s perspectives. The younger child’s reliance on aggravation and speaker-oriented negotiation reveals that he is embedded in his own viewpoints and is less able to view his request from the hearer’s viewpoints while the older child is more able to view the request from the hearer’ perspective and take her benefits into account. Our findings throw some light on children’s use of request reformulation strategy and the development of the perspective-taking ability.
參考文獻 Axia, G. (1996). How to persuade mum to buy a toy. First Language, 16, 301-317.
Axia, G., & Baroni, M. R. (1985). Linguistic politeness at different age levels. Child Development, 56, 918-927.
Bate, E. (1976). Language and contexts: The acquisition of pragmatics. New York: Academic Press.
Bernicot, J., & Mahrokhain, A. (1989). Asking and insisting after a refusal: How do 6 to 7-year-olds proceed? International Journal of Psychology, 24, 409-428.
Bearison, D. J., & Cassel, T. Z. (1975). Cognitive decentration and social codes: Communicative effectiveness in young children from differing family contexts. Developmental Psychology, 11, 29–36.
Bearison, D., & Gass, S. T. (1979). Hypothetical and practical reasoning: Children`s persuasive appeals in different social contexts. Child Development, 50, 901-903.
Blum-Kulka, S., & Olshtain, E. (1984). Request and apologies: Cross-cultural study of speech act realization patterns. Applied Linguistic, 15(3), 196-213.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1987). Indirectness and politeness in requests: Same or Different? Journal of Pragmatics, 11, 131-146.
Blum-Kulka, S. (1989). Playing it safe: The role of conventionality in indirectness. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Request and apologies (pp. 37-70). Norwood, NJ. : Ablex.
Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk: Learning to use language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Chen, Y. P. (2003). A functional analysis of children`s requests in mother-child conversation. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. National Chengchi University.
Clark, E. (2005). First language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Chandler, M. J. (1977). A selective review of current research. In W. F. Overton & J. M. Gallagher (Eds.), Knowledge and development, vol. 1. New York and London: Plenum Press.
Clark, R. A., & Delia, J. G. (1976). The development of functional persuasive skills in childhood and early adolescence. Child Development, 47, 1008-1014.
De Villiers, J. C., & de Villier, P. A. (1979). Language acquisition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Dimitracopoulou, I. (1990). Conversational competence and social development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dunn, J. (1996). Arguing with siblings, friends, and mothers: developments in relationships and understanding. In D. I. Slobin, J. Gerhardt, A. Kyratzis, & J, Guo (Eds.), Socail interaction, social context, and language: Essays in honor of Susan Ervin-Tripp (pp. 191-204). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Ervin-Tripp, S., Guo, J., & Lampert, M. (1990). Politeness and persuasion in children`s control acts. Journal of Pragmatics, 14, 307-331.
Flavell, J. H., Botkin, P. I., Fry, C. L., Wright, J. W., & Jarvis, P. E. (1968). The development of role-taking and communication skills in children. New York: Wiley.
Forrester, M. A. (1992). The development of young children`s social-cognitive. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Garvey, C. (1974). Requests and responses in children`s speech. Journal of Child Language, 2, 41-63.
Garvey, C. (1984). Children’s talk. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
Gordon, D., & Ervin-Tripp, S. (1984). The structure of children’s requests. In R. L. Schiefelbus & J. Pickar (Eds.), The acquisition of communicative competence. Maryland: University Park Press.
Haslett, B. B., & Samter, W. (1997). Children communicating: The first 5 years. London: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Higgins, E. T. (1979). Role taking and social judgment: Alternative developmental perspective and process. In J. H. Flavell, & L. Ross (Eds.), Social cognitive development (pp. 119-153). London: Cambridge University Press.
House, J., & Kasper, G. (1988). Politeness markers in English ad German. In F. Coulmas (Eds.), Conversational routine (pp. 157-185). New York: Mouton.
Hsiao, H. C. (1999). A development study of polite register in school-age children’s request. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, Fu-Jen Catholic University.
Hsu, J. H. (1996). A study of the stages of development and acquisition of Mandarin Chinese by children in Taiwan. Taipei: the Crane Publishing.
Hymes, D. H. (1972). On communicative competence. In J. B. Pride & J. Holmes (Eds.), Sociolinguistics (pp. 269-293) Baltimore: Penguin.
Jones, D. C. (1985). Persuasive appeals and responses to appeals among friends and acquaintances. Child Development, 56, 757-763.
Kasper, G. (1990). Linguistic politeness: Current research issues. Journal of Pragmatics, 14, 193-218.
Ke, P. H. (2006). Communicative repair of young children. Unpublished M. A. Thesis. National ChengKung University.
Labov, W., & Fanshel, D. (1977). The therapeutic discourse. London: Academic Press.
Lakoff, R. (1973). The logic of politeness: Or, minding your p’s and q’s. Chicago Linguistic Society, 9, 292-305.
Langford, D., (1978). The clarification request sequence in conversation between mothers and the children, In P. French & M. Mac lure (Eds.), Adult-child conversation (pp. 159-174). London: Croom Helm.
Leech, G. (1983). Principles of pragmatics. New York: Longman.
Levin, E. A., & Rubin, K. H. (1984). Getting others to do what you want them to do: the development of children’s requesitve strategies. In K. E. Nelson (Eds.), Children’s language volume 4. Hillsdale, R. J.: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Li, J. Y. (1989). Major social variables and their realization patterns of request in Mandarin Chinese. Unpublished M. A. Thesis. National Taiwan Normal University.
Lubin, D., & Whiting, B. (1977). Learning technique of persuasion: An analysis of sequences of interaction. Paper presented at the biennial meeting of the society for research in Child Development. New Orleans, March.
Marcos, H. (1991). Reformulation request at 18 months: Gestures, vocalizations and words. First Language, 11, 361-375.
Marcos, H., & Bernicot, J. (1994). Addressee co-operation and request reformulation in young children. Journal of Child Language, 21, 677-692.
Marcos, H., & Chanu, M. K. (1992). Learning how to insist and clarify in the second year: Reformulation of request in different contexts. Interactional Journal of Behavioral Development, 15(3), 359-376.
McTear, M. (1985). Children’s conversation. New York: Blackwell.
Ochs, E., & Schieffelin, B. (1984). Language acquisition and socialization: Three developmental stories and their implication. In R. A. Schweder & R. Le Vine (Eds.), Culture Theory: Essays on Mind, Self and Emotion (pp. 276-322). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Piaget, J. (1959). The language and thought of the child. New York: The Humanities Press.
Piche, G., Rubin, D. L., & Michelin, M. L. (1978). Age and social class in children`s use of persuasive communicative appeals. Child Development, 49, 773-780.
Robinson, E. J. (1981). The child`s understanding of inadequate messages and communication failure: A problem of ignorance or egocentrism. In W. P. Dickson (Eds.), Children’s oral communication skills (pp. 167-188). New York: Academic Press.
Schiefelbusch, R. L., & Pickar, J. (1984). The acquisition of communicative competence. Baltimor: University Park Press.
Shatz, M., & Gelman, R. (1973). The development of communicative skills: Modification in the speech of young children as a function of listener. Monographs of the society of research in child development, 38, 5, Chicago: University of Chicago press.
Shatz, M., Wellman, H. M., & Silber, S. (11983). The acquisition of mental verbs: A systematic investigation of the first reference to mental state. Cognition, 14, 301-322.
Selman, R. L. (1971). Taking another’s perspective: role-taking development in early childhood. Child Development, 42, 1721-34.
Selman, R. L. (1976). Social-cognitive understanding: A guide to educational and clinical practice. In T. Lickona (Eds.), Moral development and behavior. New York: Reinhart and Winston.
Selman, R. L., & Byrne, D. F. (1974). A structural-developmental analysis of levels of role taking in middle childhood. Child Development, 45, 803-806.
Spilton, D., & Lee, L. C. (1977). Some determinants of effective communication in for-year-olds. Child Development, 48, 968-977.
Tsai, I. N. (2002). Repetition in spoken Chinese. Unpublished M.A. Thesis, National Taiwan University.
Weiss, D., & Sachs, J. (1991). Persuasive strategies used by preschool children. Discourse Process, 14, 55-72.
Wilkinson, L. C., Wilkinson, A. C., Spinelli, F., & Chiang, C. P. (1984). Metalinguistic knowledge of pragmatic rules in school-age children. Child Development, 55, 2130-2140.
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
語言學研究所
94555014
96
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0094555014
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 黃瓊之zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Huang,Chiung chihen_US
dc.contributor.author (作者) 古雅婷zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (作者) Ku,Ya tingen_US
dc.creator (作者) 古雅婷zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Ku,Ya tingen_US
dc.date (日期) 2007en_US
dc.date.accessioned 17-九月-2009 16:26:28 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 17-九月-2009 16:26:28 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 17-九月-2009 16:26:28 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (其他 識別碼) G0094555014en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/33383-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 語言學研究所zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 94555014zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 96zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 本篇論文的目的在於探討兒童在親子對話中行使重新請求 (request reformulation) 的情況，研究問題如下: 1.兒童採取哪些重新請求的策略以達到請求的目的? 2.親子對話中，常見的重新請求的序列模式（patterns of request reformulation sequences）為何？ 2.如何從兒童重新請求的使用反映出角色取代能力 (perspective-taking ability )的發展? 研究對象為一位三歲和一位六歲的男孩。研究結果顯示隨著年紀的增長，兒童能使用更多元的重新請求策略。研究也發現造成請求失敗的原因隨著不同年齡的兒童有所差異。隨著年紀的增長，兒童面臨的失敗原因和挑戰日漸複雜、困難，兒童會依據不同的失敗原因採取重新請求的策略。最後，研究顯示不同年齡兒童採取的重新請求策略可以展現出他們不同階段的角色取代能力的發展。三歲的兒童無法跳脫自己的觀點而從別人的角度來看待自己的請求，所以重新請求著重於強調自己的需求。六歲的兒童較能夠從別人的立場看待自己的請求，所以他較有能力在考量對方的觀點和利益之後採用對雙方有益的策略。zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) The purpose of this study is to explore how children at different age make reformulation to compensate for an unsuccessful request. Firstly, we aim to investigate what reformulation strategies children apply and the patterns of reformulation sequences. Second, we further aim to explore how children’s use of reformulation strategies reveals the development of perspective-taking ability. The data analyzed are natural conversations of two Mandarin-speaking mother-child dyads. Subjects in this present study are two male children. One subject is three years and six months old and the other is six years old. The strategies of request reformulation adopted in this study are mainly based on Levin and Rubin’s (1984) categorization. The results show that children would have a greater variety of reformulation strategies as they get older. Furthermore, aggravation and explanation are both children’s main strategies of reformulation. With the growth of age, children decrease the use of aggravation and increase the use of bargain and mitigation. Furthermore, the results of reformulation sequences reveal that the two children are confronted with different causes of the failure to obtain compliance, which influences their adoption of reformulation strategies. The younger child faced the communicative breakdown and his mother’s ignorance while the older child encountered his mother’s queries and disagreements. Finally, the two children’s application of reformulation strategies revealed their different ability to take the other’s perspectives. The younger child’s reliance on aggravation and speaker-oriented negotiation reveals that he is embedded in his own viewpoints and is less able to view his request from the hearer’s viewpoints while the older child is more able to view the request from the hearer’ perspective and take her benefits into account. Our findings throw some light on children’s use of request reformulation strategy and the development of the perspective-taking ability.en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents Acknowledgment………………………………………………………………..……vi
Chinese Abstract……………………………………………………………..…...….xii
English Abstract………………………………………………………...……..……xiii
Chapter 1 Introduction………………………………………………………………...1
1.1 Request reformulation……………………………………………………....3
1.2 Perspective-taking ability…………………………………………………... 4
1.3 The purpose of this study…………………………………………………... 5
1.4 Organization………………………………………………………….…….. 6
Chapter 2 Literature review……………………………………………………………8
2.1 Children’s request…………………………………………………………….8
2.2 Children’s request reformulation…………………………………………....10
2.2.1 The nature of request reformulation……………………………………10
2.2.2 Strategies of request reformulation…………………………………….11
2.3 Children’s social knowledge and request reformulation……………………14
2.3.1 The theories of politeness……………………………………………14
2.3.2 Children’s request reformulation and the concept of politeness…….17
2.4 Children’s request reformulation and perspective-taking ability…………...20
2.4.1 Children’s development of perspective-taking ability………………21
2.4.2 Children’s request reformulation and perspective-taking ability……24
Chapter 3 Methodology……………………………………………………………....29
3.1 Subjects and data……………………………………………………………29
3.2 Analytical framework……………………………………………………….30
3.2.1 Request types of original request……………………………………31
3.2.2 Strategies of request reformulation………………………………….32
3.2.3 Coding system & reliability….……………………………………...35
Chapter 4 Results…………………………………………………………………….36
4.1 Children’s use of request reformulation ……………………………………36
4.1.1 Aggravation………………………………………………………….40
4.1.2 Explanation...………………………………………………………..44
4.1.3 Bargain………………………………………………………………49
4.1.4 Mitigation……………………………………………………………52
4.1.5 Clarification………………………………………………………….54
4.1.6 Summary…………………………………………………………….55
4.2 Sequences of request reformulation………………………………………...57
4.2.1 Sequences of single request reformulation………………………….57
4.2.1.1 3-year-old H’s single-reformulation sequences….………...58
4.2.1.2 6-year-old J’s single-reformulation sequences……….…….61
4.2.2 6-year-old J’s two-reformulation sequence………………………….66
4.2.3 Similarity and differences in children’s reformulation sequences…..69
4.2.4 Summary…………………………………………………………….71
Chapter 5 Discussion…………………………………………………………………73
5.1 The development of perspective-taking ability……………………………..73
5.2 Request reformulation and the development of the concept of politeness….78
5.3 Maternal responses and children’s socialization……………………………80
Chapter 6 Conclusion………………………………………………………………...83
6.1 Summary…………………………………………………………………………83
6.2 Limitation of this study…………………………………………………………..85
References………………...………………………………………………………….87
Appendix………………….………………………………………………………….93


List of figures
Figure 1…………………………………………………………………………...35
Figure 2…………………………………………………………………………...58
Figure 3…………………………………………………………………………...62
Figure 4…………………………………………………………………………...66





















List of tables
Table 1…………………………………………………………………………... 36
Table 2.a………………………………………………………………………….38
Table 2.b………………………………………………………………………….38		zh_TW
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dc.language.iso en_US-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0094555014en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 兒童語言習得zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 請求zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 角色取代能力zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 重新請求zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) child language acquisitionen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) requesten_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) perspective-taking abilityen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) request reformulationen_US
dc.title (題名) 兒童在親子對話中重新請求之研究zh_TW
dc.title (題名) A Study of Children`s Request Reformulation in Mother-Child Conversationen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Axia, G. (1996). How to persuade mum to buy a toy. First Language, 16, 301-317.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Axia, G., & Baroni, M. R. (1985). Linguistic politeness at different age levels. Child Development, 56, 918-927.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Bate, E. (1976). Language and contexts: The acquisition of pragmatics. New York: Academic Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Bernicot, J., & Mahrokhain, A. (1989). Asking and insisting after a refusal: How do 6 to 7-year-olds proceed? International Journal of Psychology, 24, 409-428.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Bearison, D. J., & Cassel, T. Z. (1975). Cognitive decentration and social codes: Communicative effectiveness in young children from differing family contexts. Developmental Psychology, 11, 29–36.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Bearison, D., & Gass, S. T. (1979). Hypothetical and practical reasoning: Children`s persuasive appeals in different social contexts. Child Development, 50, 901-903.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Blum-Kulka, S., & Olshtain, E. (1984). Request and apologies: Cross-cultural study of speech act realization patterns. Applied Linguistic, 15(3), 196-213.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Blum-Kulka, S. (1987). Indirectness and politeness in requests: Same or Different? Journal of Pragmatics, 11, 131-146.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Blum-Kulka, S. (1989). Playing it safe: The role of conventionality in indirectness. In S. Blum-Kulka, J. House, & G. Kasper (Eds.), Cross-cultural pragmatics: Request and apologies (pp. 37-70). Norwood, NJ. : Ablex.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Brown, P., & Levinson, S. C. (1987). Politeness some universals in language usage. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Bruner, J. (1983). Child’s talk: Learning to use language. Oxford: Oxford University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Chen, Y. P. (2003). A functional analysis of children`s requests in mother-child conversation. Unpublished M.A. Thesis. National Chengchi University.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Clark, E. (2005). First language acquisition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Chandler, M. J. (1977). A selective review of current research. In W. F. Overton & J. M. Gallagher (Eds.), Knowledge and development, vol. 1. New York and London: Plenum Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Clark, R. A., & Delia, J. G. (1976). The development of functional persuasive skills in childhood and early adolescence. Child Development, 47, 1008-1014.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) De Villiers, J. C., & de Villier, P. A. (1979). Language acquisition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Dimitracopoulou, I. (1990). Conversational competence and social development. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Dunn, J. (1996). Arguing with siblings, friends, and mothers: developments in relationships and understanding. In D. I. Slobin, J. Gerhardt, A. Kyratzis, & J, Guo (Eds.), Socail interaction, social context, and language: Essays in honor of Susan Ervin-Tripp (pp. 191-204). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Ervin-Tripp, S., Guo, J., & Lampert, M. (1990). Politeness and persuasion in children`s control acts. Journal of Pragmatics, 14, 307-331.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Flavell, J. H., Botkin, P. I., Fry, C. L., Wright, J. W., & Jarvis, P. E. (1968). The development of role-taking and communication skills in children. New York: Wiley.zh_TW
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