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題名 后蘇聯地區事實上國家的可持續性與未來（以阿布哈兹和德涅斯特河沿岸爲例）
The sustainability and future of de facto states of post-sovie area (on the example of Transnistria and Abkhazia)
作者 瑪麗亞
Bazhkova, Maryia
貢獻者 連弘宜
Lian, Hong-Yi
瑪麗亞
Bazhkova, Maryia
關鍵詞 事實上國家
冻结的冲突
de facto state
frozen conflict
parent state
patron state
possible scenario
日期 2019
上傳時間 6-Dec-2019 09:24:34 (UTC+8)
摘要 苏联解体和南斯拉夫导致
建立大量主权国家和分裂国家
集中在大黑海地区和巴尔干地区。后者，所谓的
事实国家成为冰冻冲突的结果，这是俄罗斯对其执政能力的控制
在苏联的最后几年，领土被削弱，民族宗教处于休眠状态
紧张局势演变成内部冲突。分离主义者，最终得到了
俄罗斯通过停火达成了战场上的胜利
举行了二十多年的母国。但是，围绕的问题
这些事实上的国家仍未解决，并试图解决冲突和
和解因许多因素而变得复杂，包括俄罗斯的利益和
参与该地区，国家历史记忆和人口统计资料，非能力
弱势的母国加强和国际规范和法律，主要是
现状。本论文旨在研究阿布哈兹和阿布哈兹的事实状态。
德涅斯特河沿岸，面临的挑战，并探讨可能的情况
通过调查和分析共同点以及差异。
The dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia resulted in the
establishment of a great number of sovereign nations and separatist states
concentrated in the greater Black Sea region and Balkans. The latter, so-called de
facto states became the result of frozen conflicts that emerged as Russia’s grip over its
territory weakened during the last years of the USSR and dormant ethno-religious
tensions erupted into internecine conflict. Separatists, ultimately with help from
Russia, were able to enshrine victories on the battlefield through ceasefires with
parent states that have held for over two decades. However, the issues surrounding
these de facto states remain unsettled, and attempts at conflict resolution and
reconciliation have been complicated by many factors, including Russian interests and
involvement in the region, national historical memory and demographics, non-ability
of weak parent states to step up and international norms and laws that mostly favor
the status quo. This thesis seeks to examine the de facto states of Abkhazia and
Transnistria, the challenges in front of them and explore possible scenarios for the
future of these entities through investigating and analyzing the common points and
differences.
參考文獻 BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. BOOKS
Bahcheli, Tozun, Barry Bartmann, and Henry Srebrnik, De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty (New York: Routledge, 2004), pp.105-111.
Beissinger, Mark R., and Crawford Young. Beyond State Crisis? : Postcolonial Africa and PostSoviet Eurasia in Comparative Perspective. Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press,2002, pp.53-57.
Bencic, Aurora, and Teodor I. Hodor, Transdniestria: Ethnic Conflict or Geopolitical Interests?
London: Editura Universitatii din Oradea, 2011, pp.403-417.
Buchanan, A. Justice, legitimacy, and self-determination. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004,pp.26-37.
Buzard, Kristina, Benjamin A.T. Graham and Ben Horne. Unrecognized States: A Theory of
Self-Determination and Foreign Influence. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 2012.
Byman, Daniel L. Keeping the peace: lasting solutions to ethnic conflict. Baltimore and London:
JHU Press, 2002, p.280.
Caspersen, Nina, and Gareth Stansfield. Unrecognized States in the International System.
London: Routledge, 2011, pp.24-33.
Caspersen, Nina. Making Peace with De Facto States, Unrecognized States and Secession in the
21th Century. New York: Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp.38-55.
Caspersen, Nina. Unrecognized States: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Modern International
System . Cambridge: Polity Press, 2012, pp.64-66.

Chinn, Jeff, and Robert Kaiser. Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the
Soviet Successor States. New York: Westview Press, 1996, pp.200-213.
De Waal, Thomas, Maria Lipman, Lev Gudkov and Lasha Bakradze. The Stalin Puzzle:
Deciphering Post-Soviet Public Opinion. Washington, DC: Carnegie Foundation of International
Peace, 2013, pp.44-68.
Donald L. Horowitz, Irredentism and International Politics. Sydney: Lynne Rienner Publishers
1991, pp.112-119.
Gary King, Robert Keohane and Sidney Verba, “Designing Social Inquiry” in Scientific
Inference in Qualitative Research, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp.35-37.
Geldenhuys, Deon, Contested States in World Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009,
pp.85-89.
Horowitz, Donald L. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985,
pp. 24-28.
Jessup, Philip C. A modern law of nations: an introduction. New York: Archon Books, 1986,
p.236.
Lynch, Dov. Engaging Eurasia`s Separatist States: Unresolved Conflicts and De Facto States
New York: United States Institute of Peace, 2004, pp.16-22.
Macedo, Stephen, and Allan Buchanan. Secession and self-determination. New York: New York
University Press, 2003, pp.247-255.
Moore, Margaret. National Self-determination and Secession, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1998, pp.76-88.

Oskanian, Kevork. Fear, Weakness and Power in the Post-Soviet South Caucasus. London:
Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2011, pp.67-69.
Pavković, Alexandr, and Peter Radan. Secession and Territorial Borders: The Role of Law.
Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2011, pp.20-25.
Peterson, M-J. Recognition of Governments: Legal Doctrine and State Practice, 1815- 1995.
New York: St. Martin`s Press, 1997, pp.23-55.
Radan, Peter, and Aleksandar Pavkovic. On the Way To Statehood: Secession And Globalisation.
Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2008, pp.44-45.
Radan, Peter. International Law and the Right of Unilateral Secession. Surrey: Ashgate
Publishing, 2011, pp.321-331.
Riegl, Martin, and Bohumil Dobos. Unrecognized States and Secession in the 21th Century.
New York: Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp.25-44.
Sterio, Milena. The right to self-determination under international law. London: Routledge, 2013,
pp.97-114.
Tekushev, Islam. Abkhazia: Between the Past and the Future. Prague: Medium Orient, 2013,
pp.75-79.
Young, Robert A. The Secession of Quebec and the Future of Canada. Montreal: McGillQueen’s Press, 1998, pp.46-48.
II. JOURNAL ARTICLES
Bakke, Kristin M., John O’Loughlin and Michael J. Ward. “The Viability of De Facto States:
Post-War Developments and Internal Legitimacy in Abkhazia”, for the annual meeting of the
American Political Science Association, Seattle, September 2011.

Berg, Eiki, “How can a de facto state be distinguished from a puppet state? An analysis of
Transnistrian-Russian relations and dependences”, in Estonian Foreign Policy Yearbook 2011.
Tallinn: Estonian Foreign Policy Institute, 2012, pp.12-18.
Berg, Eiki, and Raul Toomla. “Forms of Normalisation in the Quest for De Facto Statehood”, in
“The International Spectator: Italian Journal of International Affairs”, Vol. 44, No. 4, 2009,
pp.27-45.
Caspersen, Nina. “Playing the Recognition Game: External Actors and De Facto States”, in ‘The
International Spectator: Italian Journal of International Affairs”. Vol 44, Issue: 4, 2009, pp.12-37.
Coggins, Bridget L. “Secession, Recognition & The International Politics of Statehood”. PhD.
Diss., Ohio State University, 2006, pp.28-30.
Cojocaru, Natalia. “Nationalism and Identity in Transnistria, Innovaton” in “The European
Journal of Social science research”, Volume 19, 2006, issue 3-4, pp.261-272.
Coppieters, Bruno, and Richard Sakwa. “Contextualizing Secession” in “Normative Studies in
Comparative Perspective”. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003, pp.10-14.
Cornell, Svante E. “Autonomy as a Source of Conflict: Caucasian Conflicts in Theoretical
Perspective” in “World Politics”. Vol. 54, No. 2, 2002, pp.245-276.
Dębski, Sławomir, Bartosz Wiśniewski and Wojciech Lorenz, “EU Policy Options towards PostSoviet De Facto States” in “The Polish Institute of International Affairs”. No. 6, 2017, pp.12-18.
Dersso, Solomon. “International Law and the Self-Determination of South Sudan”. Addis Abeba:
Institute for Security Studies, 2012.
Dion, Stephane. “Why is Secession Difficult in Well-Established Democracies? Lessons from
Quebec” in “British Journal of Political Science”. Vol. 26, No. 02, 1996, pp.269-283.

Gauthier, David. “Breaking Up: An Essay on Secession” in “Canadian Journal of Philosophy”,
Vol. 24, 1994, pp.357-371.
Gezerdava, Said. “Abkhaz sovereignty and relations with Russia” in “The Politics of Nonrecognition in the Context of the Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict”. London: International Alert, 2011,
pp.16-18.
Hill, William. “Reflections on Negotiation and Mediation: The Frozen Conflicts and European
Security” in “Demokratizatsiya”. July 2010, pp.219-227.
Johnstone, Ian. “Consolidating Peace: Priorities and Deliberative Processes” in “Annual Review
of Global Peace Operations”. London: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2019, pp.13-29.
Kaufman, Stuart J., and Stephen R. Bowers. “Transnational dimensions of the Transnistrian
conflict” in “Nationalities Papers: The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity. 26 (1), 1998,
pp.129-146.
Kaufmann, Chaim. “Possible and Impossible Solutions to Ethnic Civil Wars” in “International
Security”. Vol. 20, No. 4, 1996, pp.3-20.
Keating, Michael. “Rethinking Sovereignty: Independence-lite, Devolutionmax and National
Accommodation” in “Revista d`estudis autonòmics i federals”. No 16, 2012, p.290.
Kemp, Walter. “Selfish Determination: The Questionable Ownership of Autonomy Movements”
in “Ethnopolitics”. Vol. 4, 2005, pp.85-104.
King, Charles. “The Benefits of Ethnic War: Understanding Eurasia’s Unrecognized States”, in
“World Politics”. Vol. 53, No. 4, July 2001, pp.524-552.
Kolossov, Vladimir, and John O’Loughlin. “After the Wars in the South Caucasus State of
Georgia: Economic Insecurities and Migration in the De Facto States of Abkhazia and South
Ossetia” in “Eurasian Geography and Economics”. Vol.52, 2011, pp.631-654.

Kolossov, Vladimir. “The Transdniestrian Moldovan Republic: An Unrecognized State in the
Geopolitical World Order” in “Eurasian Geography and Economics”. Vol. 55(5), 2010, pp.1-34.
Kolstø, Pal, and Andrei Malgin. “The Transnistrian Republic: A Case of Politicized Regionalism”
in “The Journal of Nationalism and Ethnicity”. 26 (1), 1998, pp.103-127.
Kolstø, Pal, and Helge Blakkisrud. “Living with Non-recognition: State- and Nationbuilding in
South Caucasian Quasi-states” in “Europe-Asia Studies”. Vol. 60, No. 3, 2008, pp.483-509.
Kolstø, Pal. “The Sustainability and Future of Unrecognized Quasi-States” in “Journal of Peace
and Research”. Vol 43, No. 6, 2006, pp.1-7.
Margalit, Avishai, and Joseph Raz. “National self-determination” in “The Journal of Philosophy”,
Vol. 87, no. 9, 1990, pp.439-461.
Munteanu, Angela, and Igor Munteanu. “Transnistria: a paradise for vested interests” in “SouthEast Europe Review”, Issue (4), 2007, pp.51-66.
Österud, Öyvind. “The Narrow Gate: Entry to the Club of Sovereign States” in “Review of
International Studies”. 23(2), 1997, pp.167-184.
Pegg, Scott. “De Facto States in the International System” for Institute of International Relations
at the University of British Columbia, 1998, pp.1-29.
Pegg, Scott. “International Society and The De Facto States” in “The international journal of
Middle East studies”. Vol.33, Issue 3, 2001, pp.469-470.
Popescu, Anna. “European Neighborhood Policy and the Georgian-Abkhaz Conflict: European
Union’s Approach” in “Europeanization and Conflict Resolution: Case Studies from the
European Periphery”, Chapter 5, July 2004.
Popescu, Nicu. “Democracy in Secessionism: Transnistria and Abkhazia’s Domestic Policies”.
2006, pp.1-27.

Radan, Peter. “Secessionist Referenda in International and Domestic Law” in “Nationalism and
Ethnic politics”. Vol.18, 2012, pp.8-21.
Radoman, Jelena. “Future Kosovo Status-Precedent or Universal Solution” in “Western Balkans
Security Observer”. Issue no. 3, 2006, pp.14-22.
Rywkin, Michael. “The Phenomenon of Quasi-states” in “Diogenes”. Vol. 53, No. 2, 2006,
pp.28-57.
Sanchez, Alejandro W. “The Frozen Southeast: How the Moldova-Transnistria Question has
Become a European Geo-Security Issue” in “The Journal of Slavic Military Studies”, 22 (2),
2009, pp.152-176.
Zartman, William. “Putting Things Back Together” in “Collapsed States: The Disintegration and
Restoration of Legitimate Authority”. London: Lyenne Rienner Publishers, 1995, pp.19-31.
III. INTERNET SOURCES
Basescu, John. “Moldova may reunite with Romania in next 25 years”, RIANovosti, November
30, 2010, , (August 28, 2019).
BBC News. Regions and territories: Abkhazia, 12 March 2012,
, (August 7, 2019).
Belister, Natalya. “Transnistrian Conflict: State of Affairs and Prospects of Settlement,” Black
See News, 27 January 2013, < https://www.blackseanews.net/en/read/55025> (August 12,
2019).
Cherilla, Victor. “APE voices regret on Transnistria article”, EUobserver, 3 February, 2011,
< http://euobserver.com/24/31684> (August 21, 2019)
Freedom in the World, 12 November 2012, from Freedom House Web site:
http://www.freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2012 (August 12 2019).

Ministry of Foreign Affairs, September 4, 2019, ,
(September 4, 2019).
Shields, Samantha. “Russian presence grows in Abkhazia”, Wall street journal. December 14,
2009, < https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB126070743647789499>( August 24, 2019).
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
外交學系
106253030
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0106253030
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 連弘宜zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Lian, Hong-Yien_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 瑪麗亞zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Bazhkova, Maryiaen_US
dc.creator (作者) 瑪麗亞zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Bazhkova, Maryiaen_US
dc.date (日期) 2019en_US
dc.date.accessioned 6-Dec-2019 09:24:34 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 6-Dec-2019 09:24:34 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 6-Dec-2019 09:24:34 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0106253030en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/127740-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 外交學系zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 106253030zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 苏联解体和南斯拉夫导致
建立大量主权国家和分裂国家
集中在大黑海地区和巴尔干地区。后者，所谓的
事实国家成为冰冻冲突的结果，这是俄罗斯对其执政能力的控制
在苏联的最后几年，领土被削弱，民族宗教处于休眠状态
紧张局势演变成内部冲突。分离主义者，最终得到了
俄罗斯通过停火达成了战场上的胜利
举行了二十多年的母国。但是，围绕的问题
这些事实上的国家仍未解决，并试图解决冲突和
和解因许多因素而变得复杂，包括俄罗斯的利益和
参与该地区，国家历史记忆和人口统计资料，非能力
弱势的母国加强和国际规范和法律，主要是
现状。本论文旨在研究阿布哈兹和阿布哈兹的事实状态。
德涅斯特河沿岸，面临的挑战，并探讨可能的情况
通过调查和分析共同点以及差异。		zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) The dissolution of the Soviet Union and Yugoslavia resulted in the
establishment of a great number of sovereign nations and separatist states
concentrated in the greater Black Sea region and Balkans. The latter, so-called de
facto states became the result of frozen conflicts that emerged as Russia’s grip over its
territory weakened during the last years of the USSR and dormant ethno-religious
tensions erupted into internecine conflict. Separatists, ultimately with help from
Russia, were able to enshrine victories on the battlefield through ceasefires with
parent states that have held for over two decades. However, the issues surrounding
these de facto states remain unsettled, and attempts at conflict resolution and
reconciliation have been complicated by many factors, including Russian interests and
involvement in the region, national historical memory and demographics, non-ability
of weak parent states to step up and international norms and laws that mostly favor
the status quo. This thesis seeks to examine the de facto states of Abkhazia and
Transnistria, the challenges in front of them and explore possible scenarios for the
future of these entities through investigating and analyzing the common points and
differences.		en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 Introduction 1
1.1 Rationale of the thesis and research questions 1
1.2 Literature review 2
1.3 Methodological and theoretical scope 12
1.4 Time frame and research limitations 13
1.5 Chapter overview 15
CHAPTER 2 Background on de facto states 16
2.1.1 Definition of de facto states 16
2.1.1 The choice of terminology 16
2.1.2 The relevance of the issue of statehood and secession 18
2.1.3 Theories of secession and their limitations 20
2.1.4 Problem of recognition 22
2.1.5 Role of a patron state and influence of Great Powers 25
2.2 Unrecognized states of post-Soviet area 28
2.2.1 General information on de facto states of post-Soviet area 28
2.2.2 Special features of post-Soviet de facto states 31
2.3 Chapter conclusion 33
CHAPTER 3 Case selection 35
3.1 Transnistria`s case 35
3.1.1 Origins 35
3.1.2 Conflict 39
3.1.3 Current situation 40
3.1.4 Russia’s and other players’ involvement 42
3.1.5 Attempts at reconciliation 46
3.2 Abkhazia`s case 47
3.2.1 Origins 47
IV
3.2.2 Conflict 49
3.2.3 Current situation 50
3.2.4 Russia’s and other players’ involvement 51
3.2.5 Attempts at reconciliation 54
3.3 Chapter conclusion 55
CHAPTER 4 Prospects for the future 61
4.1 The prospects of a sustainable conflict settlement for Transnistria 61
4.1.1 Conflict participants 61
4.1.2 Significant factors affecting the situation 62
4.1.3 Possible scenarios of conflict resolution 64
4.2 The prospects of a sustainable conflict settlement for Abkhazia 67
4.2.1 Conflict participants 67
4.2.2 Significant factors affecting the situation 68
4.2.3 Possible scenarios of conflict resolution 70
4.3 Chapter conclusion 72
CHAPTER 5 Conclusion 76
BIBLIOGRAPHY 81		zh_TW
dc.format.extent 2469900 bytes-
dc.format.mimetype application/pdf-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0106253030en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 事實上國家zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 冻结的冲突zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) de facto stateen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) frozen conflicten_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) parent stateen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) patron stateen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) possible scenarioen_US
dc.title (題名) 后蘇聯地區事實上國家的可持續性與未來（以阿布哈兹和德涅斯特河沿岸爲例）zh_TW
dc.title (題名) The sustainability and future of de facto states of post-sovie area (on the example of Transnistria and Abkhazia)en_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen_US
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) BIBLIOGRAPHY
I. BOOKS
Bahcheli, Tozun, Barry Bartmann, and Henry Srebrnik, De Facto States: The Quest for Sovereignty (New York: Routledge, 2004), pp.105-111.
Beissinger, Mark R., and Crawford Young. Beyond State Crisis? : Postcolonial Africa and PostSoviet Eurasia in Comparative Perspective. Washington D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press,2002, pp.53-57.
Bencic, Aurora, and Teodor I. Hodor, Transdniestria: Ethnic Conflict or Geopolitical Interests?
London: Editura Universitatii din Oradea, 2011, pp.403-417.
Buchanan, A. Justice, legitimacy, and self-determination. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004,pp.26-37.
Buzard, Kristina, Benjamin A.T. Graham and Ben Horne. Unrecognized States: A Theory of
Self-Determination and Foreign Influence. Los Angeles: University of Southern California, 2012.
Byman, Daniel L. Keeping the peace: lasting solutions to ethnic conflict. Baltimore and London:
JHU Press, 2002, p.280.
Caspersen, Nina, and Gareth Stansfield. Unrecognized States in the International System.
London: Routledge, 2011, pp.24-33.
Caspersen, Nina. Making Peace with De Facto States, Unrecognized States and Secession in the
21th Century. New York: Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp.38-55.
Caspersen, Nina. Unrecognized States: The Struggle for Sovereignty in the Modern International
System . Cambridge: Polity Press, 2012, pp.64-66.

Chinn, Jeff, and Robert Kaiser. Russians as the New Minority: Ethnicity and Nationalism in the
Soviet Successor States. New York: Westview Press, 1996, pp.200-213.
De Waal, Thomas, Maria Lipman, Lev Gudkov and Lasha Bakradze. The Stalin Puzzle:
Deciphering Post-Soviet Public Opinion. Washington, DC: Carnegie Foundation of International
Peace, 2013, pp.44-68.
Donald L. Horowitz, Irredentism and International Politics. Sydney: Lynne Rienner Publishers
1991, pp.112-119.
Gary King, Robert Keohane and Sidney Verba, “Designing Social Inquiry” in Scientific
Inference in Qualitative Research, (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1994), pp.35-37.
Geldenhuys, Deon, Contested States in World Politics. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009,
pp.85-89.
Horowitz, Donald L. Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985,
pp. 24-28.
Jessup, Philip C. A modern law of nations: an introduction. New York: Archon Books, 1986,
p.236.
Lynch, Dov. Engaging Eurasia`s Separatist States: Unresolved Conflicts and De Facto States
New York: United States Institute of Peace, 2004, pp.16-22.
Macedo, Stephen, and Allan Buchanan. Secession and self-determination. New York: New York
University Press, 2003, pp.247-255.
Moore, Margaret. National Self-determination and Secession, Oxford: Oxford University Press,
1998, pp.76-88.

Oskanian, Kevork. Fear, Weakness and Power in the Post-Soviet South Caucasus. London:
Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2011, pp.67-69.
Pavković, Alexandr, and Peter Radan. Secession and Territorial Borders: The Role of Law.
Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, 2011, pp.20-25.
Peterson, M-J. Recognition of Governments: Legal Doctrine and State Practice, 1815- 1995.
New York: St. Martin`s Press, 1997, pp.23-55.
Radan, Peter, and Aleksandar Pavkovic. On the Way To Statehood: Secession And Globalisation.
Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing, 2008, pp.44-45.
Radan, Peter. International Law and the Right of Unilateral Secession. Surrey: Ashgate
Publishing, 2011, pp.321-331.
Riegl, Martin, and Bohumil Dobos. Unrecognized States and Secession in the 21th Century.
New York: Springer International Publishing, 2017, pp.25-44.
Sterio, Milena. The right to self-determination under international law. London: Routledge, 2013,
pp.97-114.
Tekushev, Islam. Abkhazia: Between the Past and the Future. Prague: Medium Orient, 2013,
pp.75-79.
Young, Robert A. The Secession of Quebec and the Future of Canada. Montreal: McGillQueen’s Press, 1998, pp.46-48.
II. JOURNAL ARTICLES
Bakke, Kristin M., John O’Loughlin and Michael J. Ward. “The Viability of De Facto States:
Post-War Developments and Internal Legitimacy in Abkhazia”, for the annual meeting of the
American Political Science Association, Seattle, September 2011.

Berg, Eiki, “How can a de facto state be distinguished from a puppet state? An analysis of
Transnistrian-Russian relations and dependences”, in Estonian Foreign Policy Yearbook 2011.
Tallinn: Estonian Foreign Policy Institute, 2012, pp.12-18.
Berg, Eiki, and Raul Toomla. “Forms of Normalisation in the Quest for De Facto Statehood”, in
“The International Spectator: Italian Journal of International Affairs”, Vol. 44, No. 4, 2009,
pp.27-45.
Caspersen, Nina. “Playing the Recognition Game: External Actors and De Facto States”, in ‘The
International Spectator: Italian Journal of International Affairs”. Vol 44, Issue: 4, 2009, pp.12-37.
Coggins, Bridget L. “Secession, Recognition & The International Politics of Statehood”. PhD.
Diss., Ohio State University, 2006, pp.28-30.
Cojocaru, Natalia. “Nationalism and Identity in Transnistria, Innovaton” in “The European
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dc.identifier.doi (DOI) 10.6814/NCCU201901252en_US