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題名 跨性別者之保障－國際人權法與比較法之觀察
Protection of Transgender- Observations from International Human Rights Law and Comparative Law
作者 彭郁紋
Peng, Yu-Wen
貢獻者 許耀明
彭郁紋
Peng, Yu-Wen
關鍵詞 跨性別
性別認同
性別變更登記
國際人權法
日期 2020
上傳時間 2-Mar-2020 11:15:45 (UTC+8)
摘要 近年來我國對於性別少數族群之討論有所增加，然而相較於同性戀與雙性戀，跨性別（transgender）之權益較少受到關注及保障。然而，跨性別者因其生理性別與性別認同不相符，導致其面臨歧視、騷擾及暴力，若國家未於法律上保障跨性別，將延續其弱勢之地位，無法改善其處境。而國家對跨性別之保障，最主要體現在承認其性別認同，使其於法律上性別得以變更，而符合其性別認同。
本文將藉由討論國際人權法下對性別認同之發展，提供對於跨性別者保障之不同觀點，並檢視我國對跨性別者權益之保障是否足夠。首先將定義性別及跨性別，並介紹跨性別於醫療、就業、婚姻及法律等領域之處境。其次，就聯合國體系及核心人權公約之決議及意見，2006年由專家提出之日惹原則（Yogyakarta Principles），歐洲聯盟以及歐洲、美洲及非洲人權體系之相關意見及判決觀之，國際人權法對於性別認同之討論於近年來有所增加，賦予之保障亦逐漸完整。
就比較法方面，本文以日本、美國、英國及馬爾他等四國之法律及相關判決作為我國之比較對象，以對比我國之相關規範是否足夠。尤其我國自2008年以來，僅以內政部之函釋規範性別變更登記，並以摘除生殖器官為前提，此規定歷經多次會議，至今仍未修改，是否妥適實有疑問。本文結論認為，我國現有之規範並不符合國際人權法下之發展趨勢，更無法充分保障跨性別者之性別認同，並提出我國制定性別變更登記及修改涉及性別二元之法律之建議，以期更全面保障跨性別及多元之性別認同。
參考文獻 一、中文文獻
（一）專書
何春蕤（2003），跨性別，桃園縣: 中央大學性/別研究室。
陳薇真（2016），台灣跨性別前史：醫療、風俗誌與亞際遭逢，新北市 : 跨性別倡議站。

（二）翻譯書
American Psychiatric Association著，台灣精神醫學會譯（2014），DSM-5精神疾病診斷準則手冊，新北市 : 合記圖書。
Deborah T. Meem, Michelle A. Gibson, Jonathan F. Alexander著，蔡宗顯，黃元鵬譯（2012），發現女同性戀／男同性戀／雙性戀與跨性別，台北縣永和市 : 韋伯文化。

（三）專書論文與期刊論文
王宜帆（2010），跨性別族群在台灣處境實例、分析與思考，全國律師，14：5期，頁23-36。
丘愛芝（2015），性別人權與陰陽兒的醫療介入，台灣醫學，19卷3期，頁279-284。
卡維波（1998），什麼是酷兒，性∕別研究，第三、四期合刊，頁32-46。
李銀河（2002），酷兒理論面面觀，國外社會科學，2002年第2期，頁23-29。
洪惠芬、李淑容、林宏陽（2014），我工作，但我還是被排除！？－低度就業者的工作貧窮困境，當代社會工作學刊，6期，頁124-181。
徐志雲（2010），從醫學觀點看跨性別權益，全國律師，14：5期，頁37-46。
張宏誠（2010），法律的眼中，「我是誰？」－－性別認同障礙與變更性別登記利法芻議，全國律師，14：5期，頁57-86。
畢恆達、潘柏翰、洪文龍（2014），LGBT，收於：陳瑤華主編，台灣婦女處境白皮書：2014，台北市 : 女書文化出版。
陳宜倩（2011），性別自主決定、婚姻自由與跨性別人權——試評德國聯邦憲法法院1BvL 10/05 （2008）判決，歐美研究，41卷3期，頁801-848。
陳美華、蔡宜靜（2013），說些醫生想聽的話－變性評估的性/別政治，台灣人權學刊，第2卷第2期，頁3-39。
陳惠馨（2005），認真對待性別平等教育法－性別平等教育法之立法與展望，國家政策季刊，第4卷第1期，頁21 - 32。
黃燦瑜（2013），從「性別認同障礙」到「性別不安」，DSM-5通訊，3卷2期，頁9-11。
趙建剛、鍾美華（2018），性別不安症，醫療品質雜誌 第12卷第1期，頁82-85。
竇秀蘭，DSM-5中性別不安症（Gender Dysphoria）之主要改變（2012），DSM-5通訊，2卷1期，頁9-12。

（四）政府委託報告
王珍玲（2013），各國跨性別登記制度，內政部委託研究報告。
游明國（2016），性別友善廁所設計手冊之研究，內政部建築研究所委託研究報告。

二、日文文獻（按五十音順序排列）
大島俊之（2001），性同一性障害と戸籍訂正，法律時報，73巻7号，頁114-117。
澤田省三（2000），「性転換」をめぐる若干の法の課題：埼玉医科大学における性転換手術の実施を機縁として（下），判例時報，1693号，頁14-20。
野宮亜紀（2004），「性同一性障害」を巡る動きとトランスジェンダーの当事者運動--Trans-Net Japan（TSとTGを支える人々の会）の活動史から，日本ジェンダー研究，2004 巻7号，頁75-91。
東優子（2018），ジェンダーの多様性をめぐる概念の登場と変遷，女性心身医学，22巻3号，頁219-224。
南野知惠子監修（2004），【解說】性同一性障害者性別の取扱いの特例法，東京 : 日本加除出版。
吉澤京助（2016），「性同一性障害」概念の普及に伴うトランスジェンダー解釈の変化，ジェンダー研究，第19号，頁193-202。

三、英文文獻
（一）專書
Ammaturo, Francesca Romana. 2017. European Sexual Citizenship: Human Rights, Bodies and Identities. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bender-Baird, Kyla. 2011. Transgender Employment Experiences: Gendered Perceptions and the Law. Albany, N.Y. : State University of New York Press.
Code, Lorraine Ed. 2002. Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories. New York : Routledge
Devor, Holly. 1989. Gender Blending : Confronting the Limits of Duality. Bloomington, Ind. : Indiana University Press.
Gherovici, Patricia. 2010. Please Select Your Gender: From the Invention of Hysteria Tt the Democratizing of Transgenderism. New York : Routledge.
Girshick, Lori B.. 2008. Transgender Voices: Beyond Women and Men, Lebanon. N.H. : University Press of New England.
Namaste, Viviane K.. 2000. Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People. Chicago, Ill. : University of Chicago Press.
Samons, Sandra L.. 2009. When the Opposite Sex Isn’t: sexual orientation in male-to-female transgender people. New York : Routledge.
Teich, Nicholas M.. 2012. Transgender 101: A Simple Guide to a Complex Issue. New York : Columbia University Press.
Valentine, David. 2007. Imagining Transgender : an Ethnography of a Category. Durham, N.C. : Duke University Press

（二）專書論文
Balon, Richard. 2016. Transvestic Disorder, in Practical Guide to Paraphilia and Paraphilic Disorders 171-185, edited by Richard Balon. Switzerland: Springer.
Billard, Thomas J. 2018. “Passing” and the Politics of Deception: Transgender Bodies, Cisgender Aesthetics, and the Policing of Inconspicuous Marginal Identities, In The Palgrave Handbook of Deceptive Communication 463-477, edited by Tony Docan-Morgan. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cook-Daniels, Loree. 2016. Understanding Transgender Elders, in Handbook of LGBT Elders: An Interdisciplinary Approach to Principles, Practices, and Policies 285-308 , edited by Debra A. Harley & Pamela B. Teaster. Switzerland: Springer.
Costello, Cary Gabriel. 2016. Intersex and Trans* Communities: Commonalities and Tensions, in Transgender And Intersex: Theoretical, Practical, And Artistic Perspectives 83-113, edited by Stefan Horlacher. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Vincent, Ben & Manzano, Ana. 2017. History and Cultural Diversity, in Genderqueer and Non-Binary Genders 11-30, edited by Christina Richards et al. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Wintemute, Robert. 2015. In Extending Human Rights, Which European Court Is Substantively ‘Braver’ And Procedurally ‘Fitter’?: The Example Of Sexual Orientation And Gender Identity Discrimination, in Fundamental Rights The Eu: A Matter For Two Courts, edited by Sonia Morano-Foadi & Lucy Vickers. London: Hart Publishing.

（三）期刊論文
Aragon, Steven R. et al. 2014. The Influence of Peer Victimization on Educational Outcomes for LGBTQ and Non-LGBTQ High School Students. Journal of LGBT Youth, 11:1: 1–19.
Ayers, Chad. 2012. The Need for Change: Evaluating the Medical Necessity of Gender Reassignment Through International Standards, Washington and Lee Journal of Civil Rights and Social Justice 18: 351-388.
Begun, Stephanie & Kattari, Shanna K.. 2016. Conforming for Survival: Associations Between Transgender Visual Conformity/Passing and Homelessness Experiences. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Service 28: 54-66.
Bergstedt, Anders Spencer. 2008. Estate Planning and the Transgender Client. Western New England Law Review 30:3: 675-712.
Blanchard, Ray. 2010. The DSM Diagnostic Criteria for Transvestic Fetishism. Archives of Sexual Behavior 39:2: 363-372.
Braun, Kerstin. 2014. Do Ask, Do Tell: Where Is the Protection against Sexual Orientation Discrimination in International Human Rights Law? American University International Law Review 29: 871-903.
Brown, David. 2010. Making Room for Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in International Human Rights Law: An Introduction to the Yogyakarta Principles. Michigan Journal of International Law 31: 821-879.
Buzuvis, Erin E.. 2011. Transgender Student-Athletes and Sex-Segregated Sport: Developing Policies of Inclusion for Intercollegiate and Interscholastic Athletics. Seton Hall Journal of Sports and Entertainment Law 21: 1-59.
Carrillo-Santarelli, Nicolás. 2018. Gender Identity, and Equality and Non-discrimination of Same Sex Couples. American Journal of International Law 112:3: American Journal of International law 479-485.
Carter, Kari J.. 2006. The Best Interest Test and Child Custody: Why Transgender Should Not Be A Factor in Custody Determinations. Health Matrix 16: 209-236.
Case, Laura K. & Ramachandran Vilayanur S.. 2012. Alternating Gender Incongruity: A New Neuropsychiatric Syndrome Providing Insight into the Dynamic Plasticity of Brain-Sex. Medical Hypotheses 78:5: 626-631.
Cavanagh, Sheila L. & Sykes, Heather. 2006. Transsexual Bodies at the Olympics: The International Olympic Committee’s Policy on Transsexual Athletes at the 2004 Athens Summer Games. Body & Society 12:3: 75-102.
Cavanaugh, Timothy. 2016. Ruben Hopwood & Cei Lambert, Informed Consent in the Medical Care of Transgender and Gender-Nonconforming Patients. AMA Journal of Ethics 18:11: 1147-115.
Cohen, Charles. 2017. Losing Your Children: The Failure to Extend Civil Rights Protections to Transgender Parents. The George Washington Law Review 85: 536-565.
Contesse, Jorge. 2019. Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Inter-American Human Rights Law. North Carolina Journal of International Law 44: 353-386.
Creighton, S.M. & Liao. L.‐M.. 2004. Changing Attitudes to Sex Assignment in Intersex. BJU International 93:5: 659-664.
Cretney, Stephen. 1972. The Nullity of Marriage Act 1971. The Modern Law Review 35:1 :57-63.
Cruz, David B.. 2016. Transgender Rights After Obergefell. UMKC Law Review 693-705.
Currah, Paisley. 2003. The Transgender Rights Imaginary. Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law 4:2: 705-720.
Davidson, Megan. 2007. Seeking Refuge under the Umbrella: Inclusion, Exclusion, and Organizing within the Category Transgender, Sexuality Research & Social Policy 4:4: 60-80.
DeCuypere, G. et al. 2010. Response of the World Professional Association for Transgender Health to the Proposed DSM 5 Criteria for Gender Incongruence. International Journal of Transgenderism 12:2: 119, 119-123.
deManda, Janine M. 2002. Our Transgressions: The Legal System`s Struggle with Providing Equal Protection to Transgender and Transsexual People. UMKC Law Review 71: 507-528.
Dickerson, Hollin K.. 2005. Vindication without Substance: Gender Recognition and the Human Rights Act. Texas International Law Journal 40:4: 807-835.
Dooley, David, Prause, Joann & Ham-Rowbottom, Kathleen A.. 2002. Underemployment and Depression: Longitudinal Relationships. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 41:4: 421-436.
Dunson III, Marvin. 2001. Sex, Gender, and Transgender: The Present and Future of Employment Discrimination Law. Berkeley Journal of Employment and Labor Law 22: 465-506.
Ezie, Chinyere. 2001. Deconstructing the Body: Transgender and Intersex Identities and Sex Discrimination - he Need for Strict Scrutiny. Columbia Journal of Gender and Law 20:1: 141-200
Fishbayn, Lisa. 2007. “Not Quite One Gender or the Other”: Marriage Law and the Containment of Gender Trouble in the United Kingdom. American University Journal of Gender, Social Policy & the Law 15: 413- 441.
Freedman, David et al. 2002. Children and Adolescents with Transsexual Parents Referred to a Specialist Gender Identity Development Service: A Brief Report of Key Developmental Features. Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry 7:3: 423-432.
Gerber, Paula & Gory, Joel. 2014. The UN Human Rights Committee and LGBT Rights: What Is It Doing? What Could It Be Doing? Human Rights Law Review 14: 403–439.
Goodmark, Leigh. 2013. Transgender People, Intimate Partner Abuse, and the Legal System, Transgender People, Intimate Partner Abuse, and the Legal System. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 48: 51-104.
Green, Jamison. 2012. “If I Follow the Rules, Will You Make Me a Man?”: Patterns in Transsexual Validation. University of La Verne Law Review 34: 23-88.
Hooker, Evelyn. 1957. The Adjustment of the Male Overt Homosexual. Journal of Projective Techniques 21: 18-31.
Horowicz, Edmund M.. 2017. Intersex Children: Who Are We Really Treating, Medical Law International 17:3: 183-218.
Hunter, Ernst. 2008. What`s Good for the Gays Is Good for The Gander: Making Homeless Youth Housing Safer for Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender Youth. Family Court Review 46:3: 543-557.
Introduction: Stonewall at 25. Harvard Civil Rights-Civil Liberties Law Review 29:2: 277-282.
Jones, Bethany Alice et al. 2017. Sport and Transgender People: A Systematic Review of the Literature Relating to Sport Participation and Competitive Sport Policies. Sports Medicine 47: 701-716.
Kennedy, Amanda. 2008. Because We Say So: The Unfortunate Denial of Rights to Transgender Minors Regarding Transition. Hastings Women`s Law Journal 19:2: 281-302.
Khan, Mudasar et al. 2017. Challenges Facing LGBTQ Youth. Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law 18: 475, 536.
Kuper, Laura E. et al. 2012. Exploring the Diversity of Gender and Sexual Orientation Identities in an Online Sample of Transgender Individuals. The Journal of Sex Research 49:2-3: 244-54.
Lloyd, Abigail W.. 2005. Defining the Human: Are Transgendered People Strangers to the Law?. Berkeley Journal Of Gender, Law & Justice 20: 150-195.
Lundberg, Tove et al. 2018. Making Sense of ‘Intersex’ and ‘DSD’: How Laypeople Understand and Use Terminology. Psychology & Sexuality 9:2: 161-173.
Matricardi, Danielle. 2016. Binary Imprisonment: Transgender Inmates Ensnared within the System and Confined to Assigned Gender. Mercer Law Review 67:3: 707-740.
McArdle, David. 2008. Swallows and Amazons, or the Sporting Exception to the Gender Recognition Act. Social & Legal Studies 17:1: 39-58.
McGuire, Jenifer K. et al. 2010. School Climate for Transgender Youth: A Mixed Method Investigation of Student Experiences and School Responses. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 1175-1188.
McKee-Ryan, Frances M. & Harvey, Jaron. 2011. “I Have a Job, But . . .”: A Review of Underemployment. Journal of Management 37:4: 962-996.
Newbould, Melanie. 2017. When Parents Choose Gender: Intersex, Children, and the Law. Medical Law Review 24:4: 474-496.
Park, Andrew. 2019. Yogyakarta Plus 10: A Demand for Recognition of SOGIESC. North Carolina Journal of International Law 44:2: 223-272.
Parks, Wesley. 2013. Removal of the Impediment: The State of Transgender Marriage in Montana. Montana Law Review 74: 309-342.
Perez, Shannon Shafron. 2010. Is It A Boy or A Girl? Not the Baby, the Parent: Transgender Parties in Custody Battles and the Benefit of Promoting a Truer Understanding of Gender. Whittier Journal of Child and Family Advocacy 9: 367-404.
Persad, Xavier B. Lutchmie. 2014. An Expanding Human Rights Corpus: Sexual Minority Rights as International Human Rights. Cardozo Journal of Law & Gender 20: 337-369.
Polster, Heike. 2003. Gender Identity as a New Prohibited Ground of Discrimination. New Zealand Journal of Public and International Law 1: 157-196.
Raub, Amy et al. 2016. Protections of Equal Rights Across Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity: An Analysis of 193 National Constitutions. Yale Journal of Law & Feminism 28: 149-169.
Recent Social Media Posts: Executive Power - Presidential Directives - In Tweets, President Purports to Ban Transgender Servicemembers. Harvard Law Review 131:3: 934-943.
Reed, Geoffrey M. et al. 2006. Disorders Related to Sexuality and Gender Identity in the ICD‐11: Revising the ICD‐10 Classification Based on Current Scientific Evidence, Best Clinical Practices, and Human Rights Considerations. World Psychiatry 15:3:205-221.
Richards, Christina et al. 2016. Non-binary or Genderqueer Genders, International Review of Psychiatry 28:1 95-102.
Roen, Katrina. 2002. "Either/Or" and "Both/Neither": Discursive Tensions in Transgender Politics – TEST. Sings 27:2: 501-522.
Sandland, Ralph. 2003. Crossing and Not Crossing: Gender, Sexuality and Melancholy in the European Court of Human Rights. Feminist Legal Studies 11:2: 191–209.
Sharpe, Alex. 2012. Transgender Marriage and the Legal Obligation to Disclose Gender History. The Modern Law Review 75:1: 33-53.
Shield, Sonja. 2007. The Doctor Won`t See You Now: Rights of Transgender Adolescents to Sex Reassignment Treatment. Review of Law & Social Change 31:2: 361-433.
shuster, stef m.. 2019. Performing Informed Consent in Transgender Medicine. Social Science & Medicine 226: 190-197.
Silverstein, Charles. 2009. The Implications of Removing Homosexuality from the DSM as a Mental Disorder. Archives of Sexual Behavior 38:2: 161-163.
Simpliciano, Mark Angelo. 2018. Recognizing “X”: A Comparative Analysis of the California Gender Recognition Act --Identifying the Limitations and Conceptualizing Possible Solutions. California Western Law Review 55: 315-339.
Smith, Thomas R.. 2017. Not Throwing in the Towel: Challenging Exclusive Interscholastic Transgender Athletic Policies under Title IX. Jeffrey S. Moorad Sports Law Journal 24:2: 309-350.
Stirnitzke, Audrey C.. 2011. Transsexuality, Marriage, and the Myth of True Sex. Arizona Law Review 53: 285-320.
Stocker, Hannah. 2017. He`s the Woman: Calling for Dissolution of Discriminatory Policies in High School Athletic Associations under the ADA. Michigan State Law Review 927-996.
Sykes, Heather. 2006. Transsexual and Transgender Policies in Sport. Women in Sport and Physical Activity Journal 15:1: 3-13.
Tso, Kevin K.S.. 2015. Accident of Birth or Matter of Choice: Legal Recognition of Transsexual People in the Common Law. Cardozo Journal of Law & Gender 21: 683-728.
Uppalapati, Avani et al. 2017. International Regulation of Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity, and Sexual Anatomy. Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law 18: 635-709.
Weiss, Jillian. 2009. Transgender Identity, Textualism, and the Supreme Court: What is the `Plain Meaning` of `Sex` in Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964? Temple Political & Civil Rights Law Review 18: 573-649.
Welstead, Mary. 2006. Reshaping Marriage and the Family – The Gender Recognition Act 2004 and the Civil Partnership Act 2004. International Survey of Family Law 2006: 185-202.
Wipfler, Anna James Neuman. 2016. Identity Crisis: The Limitations of Expanding Government Recognition of Gender Identity and the Possibility of Genderless Identity Documents. Harvard Journal of Law & Gender 39:2: 491-554.

（三）NGO及機關等出版物
Amnesty International. 2014. Finland Submission to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 57th Session February 2014.
Amnesty International. 2014. The State Decides Who I Am: Lack of Legal Gender Recognition For Transgender People In Europe.
Ann P. Haas, Philip L. Rodgers & Jody L. Herman, Williams Inst. 2014. Suicide Attempts Among Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Adults.
Council of Europe. 2011. Combating Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity Council of Europe Standards.
Council of Europe. 2011. Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Europe.
Council of Europe. 2015. Protecting Human Rights of Transgender Persons: A Short Guide to Legal Gender Recognition.
FRA. 2009. Homophobia and Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in the EU Member States Synthesis Report.
FRA. 2014. Being Trans in the European Union: Comparative Analysis of EU LGBT: Survey Data.
International Commission of Jurists. 2011. Intersex, Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity And Justice: A Comparative Law Casebook.
Jaime M. Grant Et Al., Nat`l Ctr. 2011. For Transgender Equal, Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of 5he National Transgender Discrimination Survey.
Joanna Perry & Paul Franey, Council of Europe. 2017. Policing Hate Crime Against LGBTI Persons: Training for a Professional Police Response.
Joseph G. Kosciw et al., GLSEN. 2016. The 2015 National School Climate Survey: The Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Youth in Our Nation`s Schools XXIII.
Marjolein Van Den Brink & Peter Dunne, European Commission. 2018. Trans and Intersex Equality Rights in Europe–A Comparative Analysis.
Sandy E. James Et Al., Nat`l Ctr. 2016. For Transgender Equal, The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey.
Věra Jourová, EU Commission. 2015. List of Actions by the Commission to Advance LGBTI Equality.
Vĕra Jourová, EU Commission. 2016. Annual Report 2016 on the List of Actions to Advance LGBTI Equality.

（四）網路文獻
Boswell, Holly, The Transgender Alternative, CHRYSALIS Q. 1(2): 29-31 (1991), http://www.ifge.org/?q=node/58 (last visited: Apr. 22, 2019).
Gaiparashvili, Mariam & Schoentjes, Sarah, X v. FYROM: A circumspect compromise on trans* rights?, STRASBOURG OBSERVERS (Apr. 2, 2019), https://strasbourgobservers.com/2019/04/02/x-v-fyrom-a-circumspect-compromise-about-trans-rights/#more-4329 (last visit: Dec. 5, 2019).
Kuiper, A.J. & Kettenis, Peggy T. Cohen-, Gender Role Reversal among Postoperative Transsexuals, 2(3) INT. J. TRANSGENDERISM (1998), available at https://cdn.atria.nl/ezines/web/IJT/97-03/numbers/symposion/ijtc0502.htm (last visited May 8, 2019).
Malta, Monica et al., Sexual and Gender Minorities Rights in Latin America and the Caribbean: A Multi-country Evaluation, BSM INT`L HEALTH HUM RIGHTS 19:31: 1-16 (2019), at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6836409/pdf/12914_2019_Article_217.pdf (last visited: Nov. 25, 2019).
Schilt, Kristen & Wiswall, Matthew. 2008. Before and After: Gender Transitions, Human Capital, and Workplace Experiences. B.E. JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC ANALYSIS AND POLICY 8:1-40 (2006), available at http://www.econ.nyu.edu/user/wiswall/research/schilt_wiswall_transsexual.pdf (last visit: Dec. 5, 2019)
Sharpe, Andrew, From Functionality to Aesthetics: the Architecture of Transgender Jurisprudence, 8(1) MurUEJL 4, available at http://classic.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/MurUEJL/2001/4.html (last visited: July 9, 2019).
Winters, Kelley, Ten Reasons Why the Transvestic Disorder Diagnosis in the DSM-5 Has Got to Go, GID REFORM WEBLOG BY KELLEY WINTERS (Oct. 16, 2010), https://gidreform.wordpress.com/2010/10/16/ten-reasons-why-the-transvestic-fetishism-diagnosis-in-the-dsm-5-has-got-to-go/ (last visited: Apr. 22, 2019).
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
法律學系
105651050
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0105651050
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 許耀明zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 彭郁紋zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Peng, Yu-Wenen_US
dc.creator (作者) 彭郁紋zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Peng, Yu-Wenen_US
dc.date (日期) 2020en_US
dc.date.accessioned 2-Mar-2020 11:15:45 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 2-Mar-2020 11:15:45 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 2-Mar-2020 11:15:45 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0105651050en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/128870-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 法律學系zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 105651050zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 近年來我國對於性別少數族群之討論有所增加，然而相較於同性戀與雙性戀，跨性別（transgender）之權益較少受到關注及保障。然而，跨性別者因其生理性別與性別認同不相符，導致其面臨歧視、騷擾及暴力，若國家未於法律上保障跨性別，將延續其弱勢之地位，無法改善其處境。而國家對跨性別之保障，最主要體現在承認其性別認同，使其於法律上性別得以變更，而符合其性別認同。
本文將藉由討論國際人權法下對性別認同之發展，提供對於跨性別者保障之不同觀點，並檢視我國對跨性別者權益之保障是否足夠。首先將定義性別及跨性別，並介紹跨性別於醫療、就業、婚姻及法律等領域之處境。其次，就聯合國體系及核心人權公約之決議及意見，2006年由專家提出之日惹原則（Yogyakarta Principles），歐洲聯盟以及歐洲、美洲及非洲人權體系之相關意見及判決觀之，國際人權法對於性別認同之討論於近年來有所增加，賦予之保障亦逐漸完整。
就比較法方面，本文以日本、美國、英國及馬爾他等四國之法律及相關判決作為我國之比較對象，以對比我國之相關規範是否足夠。尤其我國自2008年以來，僅以內政部之函釋規範性別變更登記，並以摘除生殖器官為前提，此規定歷經多次會議，至今仍未修改，是否妥適實有疑問。本文結論認為，我國現有之規範並不符合國際人權法下之發展趨勢，更無法充分保障跨性別者之性別認同，並提出我國制定性別變更登記及修改涉及性別二元之法律之建議，以期更全面保障跨性別及多元之性別認同。		zh_TW
dc.description.tableofcontents 第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究動機 1
第二節 研究目的 2
第三節 研究範圍 2
第四節 文獻回顧 3
第五節 研究方法及章節安排 5
第二章 跨性別與其處境 6
第一節 性別與跨性別 6
第一項 性別之定義 6
第一款 生理性別 6
第二款 社會性別 6
第三款 性別認同與性別表現 7
第二項 性別二元論 7
第三項 何謂跨性別 8
第一款 跨性別一詞之歷史 8
第二款 現代跨性別之定義 9
第三款 跨性別認同 11
第四款 跨性別者之轉換 11
第五款 跨性別者之通過 12
第四項 性別不安與異裝症 14
第一款 從性別認同障礙到性別不安 14
第二款 異裝症 15
第二節 跨性別與其他性別少數之區別 16
第一項 性傾向 16
第一款 性傾向與同性戀 16
第二款 性別認同與性傾向之關係 17
第二項 間性人 18
第一款 間性人之定義與治療計劃 18
第二款 間性人與跨性別 19
第三項 酷兒 20
第一款 何謂酷兒 20
第二款 性別酷兒與跨性別 20
第三節 跨性別之處境 21
第一項 生理轉換與醫療 21
第一款 生理轉換之過程 21
第二款 醫療專業人員之角色 22
第三款 真實生活體驗 24
第二項 就業與教育 25
第一款 失業、求職與低度就業 25
第二款 其他職場上之處境 26
第三款 學校中之跨性別者 27
第四款 體育活動 28
第三項 婚姻與家庭 30
第一款 跨性別父母 30
第二款 跨性別之婚姻 31
第四項 性別二元下之生活 32
第一款 浴廁 32
第二款 居住空間 33
第五項 法律上之性別 34
第一款 證件上之性別 34
第二款 突破性別二元？ 35
第六項 小結 36
第三章 國際法對跨性別之保障 38
第一節 聯合國體系對跨性別之保障 38
第一項 跨性別權益於聯合國體系之發展 38
第一款 從性傾向到性別認同 38
第二款 性別認同保障之發展 40
第二項 核心人權公約對跨性別之保障 41
第一款 ICCPR及ICESCR對跨性別之保障 42
第二款 其他公約之一般性意見或建議對跨性別之保障 44
第三項 聯合國體系不足之處 46
第二節 日惹原則 47
第一項 日惹原則及YP+10之內涵 48
第二項 日惹原則之影響 50
第三節 歐洲人權公約對跨性別之保障 51
第一項 歐洲理事會對跨性別之討論 51
第二項 歐洲人權法院之判決 53
第一款 早期之判決 53
第二款 Goodwin v. the United Kingdom及後續英國案件 56
第三款 近期判決之發展 58
第四款 小結 60
第四節 歐洲聯盟對跨性別之保障 62
第一項 歐盟機構對跨性別權益之討論 62
第二項 歐盟對於跨性別權益之規範 64
第三項 歐洲法院關於跨性別之判決 65
第五節 美洲人權體系對跨性別之保障 69
第一項 美洲國家組織 69
第二項 美洲人權委員會 69
第三項 美洲人權法院 72
第六節 非洲人權體系對跨性別之保障 75
第七節 小結 77
第四章 國內法對跨性別之規範 78
第一節 日本 78
第一項 跨性別權益之歷史 78
第二項　關於性別認同障礙者之性別處遇特別法 80
第一款 性別處遇特別法之規定 80
第二款 後續之判決與發展 82
第二節 美國 84
第一項 跨性別權益之歷史 85
第一款 證件上之性別變更 85
第二款 跨性別之婚姻 85
第三款 就業歧視 86
第一目 民權法案第七章與跨性別就業歧視 86
第二目 立法方面之改革 88
第二項 近況及未來發展 89
第一款 教育與軍隊之跨性別規範變化 89
第一目 教育方面 89
第二目 軍隊方面 90
第二款 未來可能之發展 92
第三節 英國 94
第一項 跨性別權益之歷史 94
第一款 Corbett v. Corbett案 94
第二款 Corbett案後續影響 95
第二項 2004年性別承認法 96
第一款 2004年性別承認法之規定 96
第一目 性別承認證明之申請 96
第二目 申請人之婚姻或民事伴侶關係 98
第三目 其他權利義務之規定 99
第二款 後續發展 100
第四節 馬爾他 102
第一項 跨性別權益之歷史 102
第二項 2015年後之變遷 104
第一款 2015年性別認同、性別表現與性別特徵法 104
第二款 轉換行為、同性婚姻與X性別 105
第五節 臺灣 107
第一項 跨性別相關法制之發展 107
第一款 醫學上之發展 107
第二款 跨性別權益相關規定之建立 109
第三款 性別相關之法律 112
第二項 跨性別權益之發展 115
第一款 相關政策之討論 115
第二款 未來發展 118
第六節 小結 120
第五章 結論 124
第一節 現行制度與憲法基本權 124
第一項 現行制度之缺失 124
第二項 性別認同所涉之權利 125
第三項 國際與他國之發展 127
第二節 建議 128
第一項 性別變更登記 128
第一款 性別變更登記之要件 128
第二款 性別變更登記之程序 129
第二項 法律上之承認 130
第三節 結語 131
參考文獻 134		zh_TW
dc.format.extent 3248581 bytes-
dc.format.mimetype application/pdf-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0105651050en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 跨性別zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 性別認同zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 性別變更登記zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 國際人權法zh_TW
dc.title (題名) 跨性別者之保障－國際人權法與比較法之觀察zh_TW
dc.title (題名) Protection of Transgender- Observations from International Human Rights Law and Comparative Lawen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen_US
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 一、中文文獻
（一）專書
何春蕤（2003），跨性別，桃園縣: 中央大學性/別研究室。
陳薇真（2016），台灣跨性別前史：醫療、風俗誌與亞際遭逢，新北市 : 跨性別倡議站。

（二）翻譯書
American Psychiatric Association著，台灣精神醫學會譯（2014），DSM-5精神疾病診斷準則手冊，新北市 : 合記圖書。
Deborah T. Meem, Michelle A. Gibson, Jonathan F. Alexander著，蔡宗顯，黃元鵬譯（2012），發現女同性戀／男同性戀／雙性戀與跨性別，台北縣永和市 : 韋伯文化。

（三）專書論文與期刊論文
王宜帆（2010），跨性別族群在台灣處境實例、分析與思考，全國律師，14：5期，頁23-36。
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陳美華、蔡宜靜（2013），說些醫生想聽的話－變性評估的性/別政治，台灣人權學刊，第2卷第2期，頁3-39。
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黃燦瑜（2013），從「性別認同障礙」到「性別不安」，DSM-5通訊，3卷2期，頁9-11。
趙建剛、鍾美華（2018），性別不安症，醫療品質雜誌 第12卷第1期，頁82-85。
竇秀蘭，DSM-5中性別不安症（Gender Dysphoria）之主要改變（2012），DSM-5通訊，2卷1期，頁9-12。

（四）政府委託報告
王珍玲（2013），各國跨性別登記制度，內政部委託研究報告。
游明國（2016），性別友善廁所設計手冊之研究，內政部建築研究所委託研究報告。

二、日文文獻（按五十音順序排列）
大島俊之（2001），性同一性障害と戸籍訂正，法律時報，73巻7号，頁114-117。
澤田省三（2000），「性転換」をめぐる若干の法の課題：埼玉医科大学における性転換手術の実施を機縁として（下），判例時報，1693号，頁14-20。
野宮亜紀（2004），「性同一性障害」を巡る動きとトランスジェンダーの当事者運動--Trans-Net Japan（TSとTGを支える人々の会）の活動史から，日本ジェンダー研究，2004 巻7号，頁75-91。
東優子（2018），ジェンダーの多様性をめぐる概念の登場と変遷，女性心身医学，22巻3号，頁219-224。
南野知惠子監修（2004），【解說】性同一性障害者性別の取扱いの特例法，東京 : 日本加除出版。
吉澤京助（2016），「性同一性障害」概念の普及に伴うトランスジェンダー解釈の変化，ジェンダー研究，第19号，頁193-202。

三、英文文獻
（一）專書
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Bender-Baird, Kyla. 2011. Transgender Employment Experiences: Gendered Perceptions and the Law. Albany, N.Y. : State University of New York Press.
Code, Lorraine Ed. 2002. Encyclopedia of Feminist Theories. New York : Routledge
Devor, Holly. 1989. Gender Blending : Confronting the Limits of Duality. Bloomington, Ind. : Indiana University Press.
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Girshick, Lori B.. 2008. Transgender Voices: Beyond Women and Men, Lebanon. N.H. : University Press of New England.
Namaste, Viviane K.. 2000. Invisible Lives: The Erasure of Transsexual and Transgendered People. Chicago, Ill. : University of Chicago Press.
Samons, Sandra L.. 2009. When the Opposite Sex Isn’t: sexual orientation in male-to-female transgender people. New York : Routledge.
Teich, Nicholas M.. 2012. Transgender 101: A Simple Guide to a Complex Issue. New York : Columbia University Press.
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（二）專書論文
Balon, Richard. 2016. Transvestic Disorder, in Practical Guide to Paraphilia and Paraphilic Disorders 171-185, edited by Richard Balon. Switzerland: Springer.
Billard, Thomas J. 2018. “Passing” and the Politics of Deception: Transgender Bodies, Cisgender Aesthetics, and the Policing of Inconspicuous Marginal Identities, In The Palgrave Handbook of Deceptive Communication 463-477, edited by Tony Docan-Morgan. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
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（三）期刊論文
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Lloyd, Abigail W.. 2005. Defining the Human: Are Transgendered People Strangers to the Law?. Berkeley Journal Of Gender, Law & Justice 20: 150-195.
Lundberg, Tove et al. 2018. Making Sense of ‘Intersex’ and ‘DSD’: How Laypeople Understand and Use Terminology. Psychology & Sexuality 9:2: 161-173.
Matricardi, Danielle. 2016. Binary Imprisonment: Transgender Inmates Ensnared within the System and Confined to Assigned Gender. Mercer Law Review 67:3: 707-740.
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（三）NGO及機關等出版物
Amnesty International. 2014. Finland Submission to the UN Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination against Women, 57th Session February 2014.
Amnesty International. 2014. The State Decides Who I Am: Lack of Legal Gender Recognition For Transgender People In Europe.
Ann P. Haas, Philip L. Rodgers & Jody L. Herman, Williams Inst. 2014. Suicide Attempts Among Transgender and Gender Non-Conforming Adults.
Council of Europe. 2011. Combating Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation or Gender Identity Council of Europe Standards.
Council of Europe. 2011. Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in Europe.
Council of Europe. 2015. Protecting Human Rights of Transgender Persons: A Short Guide to Legal Gender Recognition.
FRA. 2009. Homophobia and Discrimination on Grounds of Sexual Orientation and Gender Identity in the EU Member States Synthesis Report.
FRA. 2014. Being Trans in the European Union: Comparative Analysis of EU LGBT: Survey Data.
International Commission of Jurists. 2011. Intersex, Sexual Orientation, Gender Identity And Justice: A Comparative Law Casebook.
Jaime M. Grant Et Al., Nat`l Ctr. 2011. For Transgender Equal, Injustice at Every Turn: A Report of 5he National Transgender Discrimination Survey.
Joanna Perry & Paul Franey, Council of Europe. 2017. Policing Hate Crime Against LGBTI Persons: Training for a Professional Police Response.
Joseph G. Kosciw et al., GLSEN. 2016. The 2015 National School Climate Survey: The Experiences of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Youth in Our Nation`s Schools XXIII.
Marjolein Van Den Brink & Peter Dunne, European Commission. 2018. Trans and Intersex Equality Rights in Europe–A Comparative Analysis.
Sandy E. James Et Al., Nat`l Ctr. 2016. For Transgender Equal, The Report of the 2015 U.S. Transgender Survey.
Věra Jourová, EU Commission. 2015. List of Actions by the Commission to Advance LGBTI Equality.
Vĕra Jourová, EU Commission. 2016. Annual Report 2016 on the List of Actions to Advance LGBTI Equality.

（四）網路文獻
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dc.identifier.doi (DOI) 10.6814/NCCU202000246en_US