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題名 論具殺傷力合理審查基準—— 以平等權相關案例為中心
On the Standard of “ Rational Basis Review with Bite”- Focusing upon Equal Protection Cases
作者 陳懿宏
Chen, Yi-Hung
貢獻者 廖元豪
Liao, Yuan-Hao
陳懿宏
Chen, Yi-Hung
關鍵詞 美國法
違憲審查基準
具殺傷力合理審查基準
會咬人的合理審查基準
三重違憲審查基準
平等權
Standards of review in the USA
Standards of review
Rational-basis review with bite
Three-tiered judicial
Equal Protectiuon
日期 2021
上傳時間 2-Mar-2021 14:35:45 (UTC+8)
摘要 美國聯邦最高法院在平等權保護的領域中,原本已透過諸多的案件逐步地發展出三重違憲審查基準,分別為合理審查基準、中度審查基準與嚴格審查基準。然而近期卻在原先穩固的三重審查基準下,出現了一些表面上採用合理審查基準,但違憲審查結果卻是宣告法令失效的判決,學說上稱其為具殺傷力的合理審查基準,亦即表面上是採用合理審查基準,但實際上違憲審查的內容和結果卻比傳統合理審查基準更為嚴格,亦與中度審查基準不同。而如此違憲審查基準的異變,似乎掏空了原本所建立的穩固三重審查基準,不僅造成審查基準適用上的混亂,違背了適用三重違憲審查基準的規則,也破壞了司法違憲審查的可預測性。不過相對地,美國聯邦最高法院之所以會發展出具殺傷力的合理審查基準,正式為了彌補原本三重審查基準於違憲審查制度內的僵化與其所無法解決的問題。
本研究旨在探討具殺傷力合理審查基準的內涵以及其對整個違憲審查制度的影響,將分別分析具殺傷力合理審查基準相較於傳統合理審查基準的不同之處;在何種條件將較容易觸發具殺傷力的合理審查基準;具殺傷力合理審查基準是否僅為偽裝的中度審查基準;具殺傷力合理審查基準在美國違憲審查制度中造成了何種不利影響;相對地,其彌補了何種三重違憲審查基準的缺失。
本文主張:具殺傷力合理審查基準與傳統合理審查基準、中度審查基準皆不同,是一獨立的新興違憲審查基準,雖然其將破壞三重違憲審查基準的規則性,降低司法可預測性,但同時得於避免建立新的嫌疑分類下,達到消除多元化焦慮並使該受平等保護的群體不受歧視。
The U.S. Supreme Court has gradually developed three-tiered judicial review in equal protection and substantive due process cases. The three-tiered judicial review includes rational basis review, intermediate level review, and strict review. However, recently some cases employ a searching scrutiny under the guise of traditional rational basis review; that is, to employ rational basis with bite. In each of these cases, the Court purported to apply the rational basis test, and yet it invalidated legislation which it certainly would have upheld under traditional analysis. Rational basis with bite, therefore, fosters lower court confusion as to what version of the rational basis test to apply in any given case. In addition, Justices, including those on the Supreme Court, could sit as a Superlegislature, usurping legislative power at a great cost to the majoritarian process. On the contrary, rational basis with bite also solves the problem in three-tiered judicial review.
The purpose of the study is to explore the content of rational basis with bite, and its influence in judicial review. The study analyzes the following thesis: the difference between rational basis review and rational basis review with bite; the critical factors that triggers rational basis review with bite; whether the rational basis review with bite is the guise of intermediate review; the positive and negative effects caused by rational basis review with bite.
This study proposes that rational basis review with bite is different from rational basis review and intermediate review. Although rational basis review with bite may cause negative effects, it is able to prevent establishing new suspect classification. Meanwhile, it could also diminish the pluralism anxiety and protect those who should be under equal protection from discrimination.
參考文獻 一、中文部分
(一)專書
林子儀(1999),言論自由的限制與雙軌理論,臺北市:元照。

法治斌(2003),法治國家與表意自由,臺北市:正典。

湯德宗(2009),違憲審查基準體系建構初探—「階層式比例原則」構想,臺北市:新學林。

(二)期刊
吳信華(2012),憲法訴訟法綜合研習——釋憲程序的審理:第五講 釋憲案件的審理,月旦法學教室,120期,頁42-52。

法治斌(1981),憲法保障人民財產權與其他權利之標準,政大法學評論,23期,頁1-26。

陳宜倩(2004),判決先例拘束原則,月旦法學教室,15期,頁121-124。

黃昭元(2003),純男性軍校與性別歧視──評United States v. Virginia 一案判決,歐美研究,33卷3期,頁461-539。

黃昭元(2004),憲法權利限制的司法審查標準:美國類型化多元標準模式的比較分析,臺大法學論叢,33卷3期,頁45-148。

賈文宇(2017),司法違憲審查中的證據品質與事理觀點—從證據法角度出發的美國經驗與臺灣借鏡,中研院法學期刊,20期,頁251-308。

廖元豪(1996),美國「種族優惠性差別待遇」(Racial Affirmative Action)合憲性之研究 ─ 兼論平等原則之真義,東吳大學法律學報,9卷2期,頁1-44。

廖元豪(2014),革命即將成功,同志仍須努力──簡評美國聯邦最高法院同性婚姻之判決,月旦法學雜誌,224期,頁20-37。

廖元豪(2008),高深莫測,抑或亂中有序?──論現任大法官在基本性權利案件中的「審查基準」,中研院法學期刊,2期,頁211-274。

(三)碩士論文
高敬棠(2020),論稅法之違憲審查基準——以平等爭議為中心,國立臺北大學法律學研究所碩士論文。

二、外文部分
(一)專書(Books)
Benjamin F. Wright. 1942. The Growth of The American Constitutional Law. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Company Press.

Gerald Gunther. 1991. Constitutional Law. 12th ed. Westbury, NY: Foundation Press.

Germaine Greer. 1971. The Female Eunuch. New York, NY: MacGraw-Hill Company Press.

Merriam-Webster, Incorporated. 2003. Merriam-Webster`s Collegiate Dictionary. 11 th ed. Springfield, MA: Merriam-Webster, Incorporated Press.

Robert D. Putnam. 2000. Bowling Alone. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Press.

(二)期刊論文(Journal Articles)
Alex Reed. 2013. Pro-Business or Anti-Gay? Disguising LGBT Animus As Economic Legislation, 9 Stan. J. Civ. Rts. & Civ. Liberties 153: 153-212.

Andrew Koppelman. 2010. DOMA, Romer, and Rationality, 58 Drake L. Rev. 923: 932-950.

Daniel O. Conkle. 2014. Evolving Values, Animus, and Same-Sex Marriage, 89 Ind. L.J. 27: 27-42.

David O. Stewart. 1985. A Growing Equal Protection Clause?, 71(10) A.B.A. J. 108: 108-120.

Gayle Lynn Pettinga. 1987. Rational Basis with Bite: Intermediate Scrutiny by Any Other Name, 62 Ind. L.J. 779: 779-803.

Gerald Gunther. 1972. Foreword: In Search of Evolving Doctrine on A Changing Court: A Model for A Newer Equal Protection, 86 Harv. L. Rev. 1: 1-48 .

Harvard Law Review. 2013. The Benefits of Unequal Protection, 126 Harv. L. Rev. 1348, 1348-1369.

James B. Thayer. 1893. The Origin and Scope of the American Doctrine of Constitutional Law, 7 Harv. L. Rev. 129: 129-156.

Jeffrey D. Jackson. 2011. Putting Rationality Back into the Rational Basis Test: Saving Substantive Due Process and Redeeming the Promise of the Ninth Amendment, 45 U. Rich. L. Rev. 491: 491-548.

Jeffrey H. Blattner. 1981. The Supreme Court`s “Intermediate” Equal Protection Decisions: Five Imperfect Models of Constitutional Equality, 8 Hastings Const. L.Q. 777: 777-842.

Jeffrey M. Shaman. 1975. The Rule of Reasonableness in Constitutional Adjudication: Toward the End of Irresponsible Judicial Review and the Establishment of a Viable Theory of the Equal Protection Clause, 2 Hastings Const L.Q. 153: 153-178.

Jennifer Jolly-Ryan. 2017. Ebolamania and Equal Protection of Health Care Workers Under Rational Basis with Bite Review, 120 W. Va. L. Rev. 576: 576-627.

Jeremy B. Smith. 2005. The Flaws of Rational Basis with Bite: Why the Supreme Court Should Acknowledge Its Application of Heightened Scrutiny to Classifications Based on Sexual Orientation, 73 Fordham L. Rev. 2769: 2769-2814.

Jospeh Tussman, Jacobus tenBroek. 1949. The Equal Protection of the Laws, 37 Calif. L. Rev. 341: 341-381.

Katherine Erickson. 2017. Harvey Milk and Judicial Review: The End of Rational Basis with Bite, and LGBT Schools, Too?, 41 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 143: 143-179.

Kathleen M. Sullivan. 2002. Constitutionalizing Women`s Equality, 90 Cal. L. Rev. 735: 735-764.

Kenji Yoshino. 2011. The New Equal Protection, 124 Harv. L. Rev. 747: 747-803.

Kenji Yoshino. 2013. Why the Court Can Strike Down Marriage Restrictions Under Rational-Basis Review, 37 N.Y.U. Rev. L. & Soc. Change 331: 331-337.

Linda C. McClain. 2013. From Romer v. Evans to United States v. Windsor: Law as a Vehicle for Moral Disapproval in Amendment 2 and the Defense of Marriage Act, 20 Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy 351: 351-478.

Louis Lusky. 1982. Footnote Redux: A Carolene Products Reminiscence, 82 Colum. L. Rev. 1093: 1093-1105.

Marc P. Florman. 2012. The Harmless Pursuit of Happiness: Why "Rational Basis with Bite" Review Makes Sense for Challenges to Occupational Licenses, 58 Loy. L. Rev. 721: 721-771.

R. Randall Kelso. 2002. Standards of Review Under the Equal Protection Clause and Related Constitutional Doctrines Protecting Individual Rights: The "Base Plus Six" Model and Modern Supreme Court Practice, 4 U. Pa. J. Const. L. 225: 225-259.

R. Randall Kelso. 1995. Three Years Hence: An Update on Filling Gaps in the Supreme Court`s Approach to Constitutional Review of Legislation, 36 S. Tex. L. Rev. 1: 1-43.

Raphael Holoszyc-Pimentel. 2015. Reconciling Rational-Basis Review: When Does Rational Basis Bite?, 90 N.Y.U. L. Rev. 2070: 2070-2117.

Ray A. Brown. 1927. Due Process of Law, Police Power, and the Supreme Court, 40 Harv. L. Rev. 943: 943-968.

Richard A. Epstein. 2012. Judicial Engagement with the Affordable Care Act: Why Rational Basis Analysis Falls Short, 19 Geo. Mason L. Rev. 931: 931-957.

Robert C. Farrell. 1999. Successful Rational Basis Claims in the Supreme Court from the 1971 Term Through Romer v. Evans, 32 Ind. L. Rev. 357: 357-419.

Robert D. Putnam. 2007. E Pluribus Unum: Diversity and Community in the Twenty-First Century, 30 Scandinavian Pol. Stud. 137: 137-174.

Sarah Finnane Hanafin. 2011. Legal Shelter: A Case for Homelessness As A Protected Status Under Hate Crime Law and Enhanced Equal Protection Scrutiny, 40 Stetson L. Rev. 435: 435-474.

Sean C. Doyle. 2014. HIV-Positive, Equal Protection Negative, 81 Geo. L.J. 375: 375-408.

Steven Menashi, Douglas H. Ginsburg. 2014. Rational Basis with Economic Bite, 8 Nyu J.L. & Liberty 1055: 1055-1104.

Susannah W. Pollvogt. 2013. Unconstitutional Animus, 81 Fordham L. Rev. 887: 887-937.

Thomas B. Nachbar. 2017. Rational Basis "Plus", 32 Const. Comment. 449: 449-477.

Yale Law Journal. 1981. Quasi-Suspect Classes and Proof of Discriminatory Intent: A New Model, 90 Yale L.J. 912: 912-931.
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
法律學系
104651047
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0104651047
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 廖元豪zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Liao, Yuan-Haoen_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 陳懿宏zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Chen, Yi-Hungen_US
dc.creator (作者) 陳懿宏zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Chen, Yi-Hungen_US
dc.date (日期) 2021en_US
dc.date.accessioned 2-Mar-2021 14:35:45 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 2-Mar-2021 14:35:45 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 2-Mar-2021 14:35:45 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0104651047en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/134097-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 法律學系zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 104651047zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 美國聯邦最高法院在平等權保護的領域中,原本已透過諸多的案件逐步地發展出三重違憲審查基準,分別為合理審查基準、中度審查基準與嚴格審查基準。然而近期卻在原先穩固的三重審查基準下,出現了一些表面上採用合理審查基準,但違憲審查結果卻是宣告法令失效的判決,學說上稱其為具殺傷力的合理審查基準,亦即表面上是採用合理審查基準,但實際上違憲審查的內容和結果卻比傳統合理審查基準更為嚴格,亦與中度審查基準不同。而如此違憲審查基準的異變,似乎掏空了原本所建立的穩固三重審查基準,不僅造成審查基準適用上的混亂,違背了適用三重違憲審查基準的規則,也破壞了司法違憲審查的可預測性。不過相對地,美國聯邦最高法院之所以會發展出具殺傷力的合理審查基準,正式為了彌補原本三重審查基準於違憲審查制度內的僵化與其所無法解決的問題。
本研究旨在探討具殺傷力合理審查基準的內涵以及其對整個違憲審查制度的影響,將分別分析具殺傷力合理審查基準相較於傳統合理審查基準的不同之處;在何種條件將較容易觸發具殺傷力的合理審查基準;具殺傷力合理審查基準是否僅為偽裝的中度審查基準;具殺傷力合理審查基準在美國違憲審查制度中造成了何種不利影響;相對地,其彌補了何種三重違憲審查基準的缺失。
本文主張:具殺傷力合理審查基準與傳統合理審查基準、中度審查基準皆不同,是一獨立的新興違憲審查基準,雖然其將破壞三重違憲審查基準的規則性,降低司法可預測性,但同時得於避免建立新的嫌疑分類下,達到消除多元化焦慮並使該受平等保護的群體不受歧視。
zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) The U.S. Supreme Court has gradually developed three-tiered judicial review in equal protection and substantive due process cases. The three-tiered judicial review includes rational basis review, intermediate level review, and strict review. However, recently some cases employ a searching scrutiny under the guise of traditional rational basis review; that is, to employ rational basis with bite. In each of these cases, the Court purported to apply the rational basis test, and yet it invalidated legislation which it certainly would have upheld under traditional analysis. Rational basis with bite, therefore, fosters lower court confusion as to what version of the rational basis test to apply in any given case. In addition, Justices, including those on the Supreme Court, could sit as a Superlegislature, usurping legislative power at a great cost to the majoritarian process. On the contrary, rational basis with bite also solves the problem in three-tiered judicial review.
The purpose of the study is to explore the content of rational basis with bite, and its influence in judicial review. The study analyzes the following thesis: the difference between rational basis review and rational basis review with bite; the critical factors that triggers rational basis review with bite; whether the rational basis review with bite is the guise of intermediate review; the positive and negative effects caused by rational basis review with bite.
This study proposes that rational basis review with bite is different from rational basis review and intermediate review. Although rational basis review with bite may cause negative effects, it is able to prevent establishing new suspect classification. Meanwhile, it could also diminish the pluralism anxiety and protect those who should be under equal protection from discrimination.
en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents 第一章 緒論 1
第一節 研究背景:美國憲法之違憲審查基準 1
第二節 問題之提出 2
第三節 研究範圍 3
第一項 集中於美國法 3
第二項 以審查基準問題為核心 4
第四節 文獻回顧 4
第五節 論文架構與安排 6
第二章 美國法上的傳統審查基準 7
第一節 從歷史發展的脈絡觀察審查基準的演變 7
第一項 Lochner era 之前:寬鬆、模糊的「明確錯誤」標準 8
第二項 Lochner era:審查標準的提高與躁進 10
第三項 New Deal era 審查標準的潰退與棄守 12
第四項 Footnote4 of Carolene Products:雙重標準的出現 14
第五項 性別平等的中度審查:三重審查基準 17
第二節 從三重審查基準案例分析其內涵 20
第一項 嚴格審查基準 20
第二項 傳統的合理審查基準 23
第三項 中度審查基準 25
第四項 小結 28
第三章 美國法上具殺傷力合理審查基準之歸納 31
第一節 相關案例研析 31
第一項 Zobel v. Williams案 32
第二項 Williams v. Vermont案 34
第三項 Hooper v. Bernalillo County Assessor案 37
第四項 City of Cleburne v. Cleburne Living Center, Inc.案 39
第五項 Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. v. Ward案 43
第六項 United States Department of Agriculture v. Moreno案 47
第七項 Romer v. Evans案 49
第八項 Lawrence v. Texas案 52
第九項 United States v. Windsor案 55
第十項 Obergefell v. Hodges案 58
第十一項 小結 62
第一款 形式觀察 62
第二款 實質觀察 63
第二節 與傳統合理審查基準比較 65
第一項 傳統合理審查基準 65
第一款 合憲推定原則 66
第二款 可能存在的目的 67
第三款 拒絕分析立法紀錄 71
第四款 允許一次一步 72
第五款 挑戰者之舉證責任 75
第二項 具殺傷力的合理審查基準 76
第一款 限縮合憲推定的範圍 76
第二款 真實的立法目的 78
第三款 檢查立法紀錄 80
第四款 不允許一次一步 82
第五款 舉證責任倒置 84
第三項 小結 85
第四章 美國法上具殺傷力合理審查基準之評析 88
第一節 具殺傷力合理審審查基準的觸發條件 88
第一項 法令的立法目標存在對於某一特定群體的敵意 89
第二項 法令的立法分類涉及弱勢但非嫌疑分類的群體 90
第三項 涉及重要權利及該分類標準有曾經遭受歧視的歷史 91
第四項 涉及重要的基本性權利或政治程序上無能為力的群體 92
第五項 純粹傷害政治上不受歡迎群體的渴望與立法分類涉及個人人際關係時 92
第六項 法令目標於限制道德所不能接受的、僅具敵意的、歧視非居民的競爭對手以促進國內產業或傷害政治上不受歡迎團體的渴望 94
第七項 法令目標具備敵意、受限制的群體的有被歧視的歷史、受限制群體在政治程序上的無能為力、受限制的群體對社會貢獻能力的關係和立法分類的不變性 94
第八項 不變性與限制重要的權利 96
第一款 長期受到歧視的歷史 97
第一目 法院在多數意見中明確承認者 97
第二目 僅在其他大法官意見中所承認者 98
第三目 法院在多數意見中直接拒絕承認者 100
第四目 小結 101
第二款 政治程序的無能為力 102
第三款 對社會的貢獻能力 104
第四款 不變性 106
第五款 限制重要的權利 110
第六款 出於敵意的歧視 114
第七款 聯邦主義的考量 117
第八款 反常的歧視特徵 119
第九款 對人際關係的限制 120
第九項 小結 121
第一款 引進不變性與限制重要的權利 121
第二款 具殺傷力的團體 127
第二節 是否為獨立的審查基準 127
第一項 偽裝的中度審查基準 128
第二項 獨立的新興審查基準 130
第三項 小結 133
第一款 具殺傷力合理審查基準並非中度審查基準的過渡產物 133
第二款 具殺傷力合理審查基準與中度審查基準觸發條件不同 134
第三款 具殺傷力合理審查基準與中度審查基準違憲程度不同 135
第三節 具殺傷力合理審查基準之缺失 136
第一項 權力分立的違反 136
第二項 下級法院審查基準適用上的混亂 138
第一款 同一巡迴法院內部的矛盾 138
第二款 巡迴法院間的矛盾 139
第三款 下級法院與最高法院的矛盾 139
第三項 小結 140
第四節 具殺傷力合理審查基準之長處 140
第一項 彌補三重違憲審查基準的不足 140
第二項 避免建立新的嫌疑分類 142
第三項 消除多元化焦慮 143
第四項 反映法律的文化底蘊 146
第五項 允許良性的不對稱 146
第六項 落實憲法賦予法院的義務 148
第七項 小結 148
第五節 比較具殺傷力合理審查基準的優劣 149
第五章 我國大法官解釋之借鏡 151
第一節 相關的大法官解釋 151
第一項 釋字第711號解釋 151
第二項 釋字第722號解釋 153
第三項 釋字第745號解釋 155
第四項 釋字第779號解釋 158
第五項 小結 160
第二節 與美國法的比較 162
第一項 違憲審查基準發展脈絡不同 162
第二項 案件類型不同 165
第三項 具殺傷力合理審查基準具體操作細節不同 166
第一款 合憲推定範圍的不同 166
第二款 檢查立法紀錄的不同 167
第三款 舉證責任的不同 168
第三節 我國釋憲實務與美國法之相異處 169
第一項 我國釋憲實務的相異 169
第一款 具殺傷力合理審查基準的出現 169
第二款 適用案件類型較無憲法意義 169
第三款 具殺傷力合理審查基準的觸發條件未臻明確 170
第四款 具殺傷力合理審查基準操作上的矛盾 171
第二項 我國釋憲實務未來可能發展之方向 173
第一款 建立更完整的理論基礎 173
第二款 使用在更需要司法保護的立法分類 173
第三款 落實限縮合憲推定範圍的原則 175
第三項 小結 176
第六章 結論 176
參考文獻 179
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dc.format.extent 1341272 bytes-
dc.format.mimetype application/pdf-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0104651047en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 美國法zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 違憲審查基準zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 具殺傷力合理審查基準zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 會咬人的合理審查基準zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 三重違憲審查基準zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 平等權zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Standards of review in the USAen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Standards of reviewen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Rational-basis review with biteen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Three-tiered judicialen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Equal Protectiuonen_US
dc.title (題名) 論具殺傷力合理審查基準—— 以平等權相關案例為中心zh_TW
dc.title (題名) On the Standard of “ Rational Basis Review with Bite”- Focusing upon Equal Protection Casesen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen_US
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 一、中文部分
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(三)碩士論文
高敬棠(2020),論稅法之違憲審查基準——以平等爭議為中心,國立臺北大學法律學研究所碩士論文。

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Robert D. Putnam. 2000. Bowling Alone. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Press.

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dc.identifier.doi (DOI) 10.6814/NCCU202100379en_US