1. NCCU Academic Hub
  2. 學術產出
  3. College of Education
  4. Theses
  5. Item

學術產出-Theses

Article View/Open

Publication Export

Google ScholarTM

政大圖書館

Citation Infomation

題名 性別薪資差異：世界趨勢、學生軟實力和專業領域
Gender Wage Gap: World Trend, Soft Skills, and Fields of Study
作者 朱梅花
Zhu, Mei-Hua
貢獻者 邱美秀
Chiu, Mei-Shiu
朱梅花
Zhu, Mei-Hua
關鍵詞 性別薪資差異
軟技能
大學專業
學測成績
不平等
gender wage gap
soft skill
college major
entrance score
inequality
日期 2021
上傳時間 4-Aug-2021 16:13:38 (UTC+8)
摘要 勞動力市場的性別不平等是一個關鍵的全球性問題，性別薪資差異在許多國家的不同層面廣泛存在，數十年來一直是公眾關注的問題。前所未有的疫情加劇了國家內部和國家之間存在的收入不平等。而教育理應成為縮小薪資差距和收入不平等的工具，因此本文著重探索臺灣教育長期追蹤資料庫:後續調查(TEPS-B) 以及關於薪資差異的文獻，包含以下研究。
研究一針對1980年至2020年發表的性別薪資差異研究進行了文獻計量分析。它描繪了經濟、社會學和教育三個特定領域中性別薪資差異研究的主要發展及其隨時間的演變。隨後的兩項研究主要通過從TEPS-B中提取數據來研究台灣的相關情況。
研究二考察了TEPS-B中的學業成績和軟技能的性別差異，及其對性別薪資差異的影響。它通過分析相關數據來呈現性別薪資差異的狀況，以及基於社會文化理論的潛在解釋，從而提供了一些關於性別薪資差異的見解。
研究三擴展了研究二的研究，進一步探討了大學專業學門對收入、學業成績和軟技能的性別差異的調節作用。最後，第五章通過總結三項研究的發現來概述論文，並提出對未來研究和教育實踐的啟示。
Gender inequality in the labour market is a key global issue, the gender wage gap is widely existed at different levels in many countries and has been a public concern over decades. The unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the earning inequality existing both within and across countries. Education is expected to be the great equalizer that narrows the gap and shrinks the income inequality. This thesis presents three studies on gender wage gap.
Study 1 reports on a bibliometric analysis of gender wage gap research published from 1980 to 2020. It delineates the main development of gender wage gap research in three specific fields of economy, sociology, and education, and its evolution over time. The subsequent two studies primarily focused on Taiwan context by extracting data from Taiwan Education Panel Survey and Beyond (TEPS-B).
Study 2 examines the gender difference in academic achievement and soft skills in higher education, and their impact on gender wage gap. It provides some insights on gender wage gap by presenting new empirical estimates to illustrate the extent of the gender wage gap and their potential explanations based on sociocultural theory.
Lastly, Study 3 extends from the previous study and further examines moderating effects of college major on gender differences in income, academic achievement, and soft skills. Finally, Chapter 5 concludes the thesis by summarizing findings across the three studies and proposes implications for future research and educational practice.
參考文獻 Chapter 1
Becker, G. S. (1962). Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Political Economy, 70(5), 9–49. https://doi.org/10.1086/258724
Black, D. A., Haviland, A., Sanders, S. G., & Taylor, L. J. (2008). Gender wage disparities among the highly educated. Journal of Human Resources, 43(3), 630–659. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.43.3.630
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Chang, Doris T. (2018). Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Policies in Contemporary Taiwan. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), 344–358. Available at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss6/22
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408
García-Aracil, A. (2008). College major and the gender earnings gap: A multi-country examination of postgraduate labour market outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 49(8), 733–757. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-008-9102-y
Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.014
International Labour Office (ILO) (2019). World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2019. Geneva: Publications Production Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO.
Kuan, P.-Y. (2017). Taiwan education panel survey and beyond/2014: Face to face interview follow-up survey of panel-1/2 CP and panel-1 NCP (Public Access Data) (E10259_3] [Data file]. Available from Survey Research DataArchive, Academia Sinica doi: https://doi.org/10.6141/TW-SRDA-E10259_3-2
Laker, D. R., & Powell, J. L. (2011). The differences between hard and soft skills and their relative impact on training transfer. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.20063
Landivar, L. C., Ruppanner, L., Scarborough, W. J., & Collins, C. (2020). Early Signs Indicate That COVID-19 Is Exacerbating Gender Inequality in the Labor Force. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 6, 2378023120947997. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120947997
Lubinski, D., Webb, R. M., Morelock, M. J., & Benbow, C. P. (2001). Top 1 in 10,000: A 10-year follow-up of the profoundly gifted. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(4), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.718
Morrissey, T. W., Hutchison, L., & Winsler, A. (2014). Family income, school attendance, and academic achievement in elementary school. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033848
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2020), Gender wage gap (indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/7cee77aa-en. Available at https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm (Accessed on 11 April 2020)
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. Educational Leadership, 70 (8), 10–16. https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/LISCenter/2019%20Inequality%20by%20the%20Numbers/Instructor%20Readings/Conwell-2.pdf
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Chapter two - Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55-123). Academic Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394281-4.00002-7
Zafar, B. (2009). College major choice and the gender gap. Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Staff Reports, 48. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1348219

Chapter2
Albrecht, J., Bronson, M. A., Thoursie, P. S., & Vroman, S. (2018). The career dynamics of high-skilled women and men: Evidence from Sweden. European Economic Review, 105, 83–102. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2018.03.012
Andreoni, J., & Petrie, R. (2008). Beauty, gender and stereotypes: Evidence from laboratory experiments. Journal of Economic Psychology, 29(1), 73–93. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2007.07.008
Aria, M., & Cuccurullo, C. (2017). bibliometrix: An R-tool for comprehensive science mapping analysis. Journal of Informetrics, 11(4), 959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2017.08.007
Arulampalam, W., Booth, A. L., & Bryan, M. L. (2007). Is there a glass ceiling over Europe? Exploring the gender pay gap across the wage distribution. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 60(2), 163–186. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25249069
Becker, J. C., Zawadzki, M. J., & Shields, S. A. (2014). Confronting and reducing sexism: A call for research on intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 603–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12081
Black, D. A., Haviland, A., Sanders, S. G., & Taylor, L. J. (2008). Gender wage disparities among the highly educated. Journal of Human Resources, 43(3), 630–659. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.43.3.630
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Bobbitt-Zeher, D. (2007). The gender income gap and the role of education. Sociology of Education, 80(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070708000101
Bouchard, L., Albertini, M., Batista, R., & de Montigny, J. (2015). Research on health inequalities: A bibliometric analysis (1966-2014). Soc Sci Med, 141, 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.07.022
Bylsma, W. H., & Major, B. (1994). Social comparisons and contentment: Exploring the psychological costs of the gender wage gap. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(2), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00453.x
Card, D., & DiNardo, J. E. (2002). Skill biased technological change and rising wage inequality: Some problems and puzzles. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series, No. 8769. https://doi.org/10.3386/w8769
Ceci, S. J., Ginther, D. K., Kahn, S., & Williams, W. M. (2014). Women in academic science: A changing landscape. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 15(3), 75–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236
Cha, Y., & Weeden, K. A. (2014). Overwork and the slow convergence in the gender gap in wages. American Sociological Review, 79(3), 457–484. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414528936
Chen, C. (2006). CiteSpace II: Detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient patterns in scientific literature. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 57, 359–377. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20317
Cohen, P. N., & Huffman, M. L. (2007). Working for the woman? Female managers and the gender wage gap. American Sociological Review, 72(5), 681–704. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25472487
England, P., Bearak, J., Budig, M. J., & Hodges, M. J. (2016). Do highly paid, highly skilled women experience the largest motherhood penalty? American Sociological Review, 81(6), 1161–1189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416673598
Even, W. E., & Macpherson, D. A. (1990). The gender gap in pensions and wages. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 72(2), 259–265. https://doi.org/10.2307/2109715
Fuller, S., & Hirsh, C. E. (2018). “Family-Friendly” jobs and motherhood pay penalties: The impact of flexible work arrangements across the educational spectrum. Work and Occupations, 46(1), 3–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888418771116
Galor, O., & Weil, D. N. (1996). The gender gap, fertility, and growth. The American Economic Review, 86(3), 374–387. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118202
Guo, Y.-M., Huang, Z.-L., Guo, J., Li, H., Guo, X.-R., & Nkeli, M. J. (2019). Bibliometric analysis on smart cities research. Sustainability, 11(13). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11133606
Heckman, J. J., & LaFontaine, P. A. (2010). The American high school graduation rate: trends and levels. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 92(2), 244–262. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27867535
Heilman, M. E., & Caleo, S. (2018). Combatting gender discrimination: A lack of fit framework. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 21(5), 725–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218761587
Jackson, L., & Grabski, S. (1988). Perceptions of fair pay and the gender wage gap. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18(7), 606–625. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb00040.x
Jacob, B. (2002). Where the boys aren’t: Non-cognitive skills, returns to school and the gender gap in higher education. Economics of Education Review, 21, 589-598. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(01)00051-6
Judge, T., Livingston, B., & Hurst, C. (2011). Do nice guys-and gals-really finish last? The joint effects of sex and agreeableness on income. Journal of personality and social psychology, 102, 390–407. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026021
Kim, J., Lee, J.-W., & Shin, K. (2016). Gender inequality and economic growth in Korea. Pacific Economic Review. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0106.12181
Korpi, W., Ferrarini, T., & Englund, S. (2013). Women’s opportunities under different family policy constellations: Gender, class, and inequality tradeoffs in western countries re-examined. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 20(1), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxs028
Landivar, L. C., Ruppanner, L., Scarborough, W. J., & Collins, C. (2020). Early signs indicate that COVID-19 is exacerbating gender inequality in the labor force. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 6, 2378023120947997. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120947997
Lin, A. J., Hsu, C.-L., & Chiang, C.-H. (2016). Retracted article: Bibliometric study of electronic commerce research in information systems & MIS Journals. Scientometrics, 109(3), 1455–1476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03818-6
Ma, X., & Piao, X. (2019). The impact of intra-household bargaining power on happiness of married women: Evidence from Japan. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(6), 1775–1806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0023-y
Manzoni, A., & Streib, J. (2019). The equalizing power of a college degree for first-generation college students: Disparities across institutions, majors, and achievement levels. Research in Higher Education, 60(5), 577–605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9523-1
Maume, D. (1999). Glass ceilings and glass escalators. Work and Occupations: An International Sociological Journal, 26, 483–509. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888499026004005
McGuinness, S., & Bennett, J. (2007). Overeducation in the graduate labour market: A quantile regression approach. Economics of Education Review, 26(5), 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.12.003
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2020), Gender wage gap (indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/7cee77aa-en. Available at https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm (Accessed on 11 April 2020)
Reskin, B. F. (1988). Bringing the men back in: Sex differentiation and the devaluation of women’s work. Gender & Society, 2(1), 58–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124388002001005
Solbes-Canales, I., Valverde-Montesino, S., & Herranz-Hernandez, P. (2020). Socialization of gender stereotypes related to attributes and professions among young Spanish school-aged children. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 609. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00609
Stevenson, B., & Wolfers, J. (2007). Marriage and divorce: Changes and their driving forces. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21, 27–52. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1007827
Terborg, J. R., & Ilgen, D. R. (1975). A theoretical approach to sex discrimination in traditionally masculine occupations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13(3), 352–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(75)90056-2
Waldfogel, J. (1998). Understanding the "Family Gap" in pay for women with children. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 12(1), 137–156. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.12.1.137
World Health Organization Commission on Social Determinants of Health (WHO-CSDH). (2008). Closing the gap in a generation : health equity through action on the social determinants of health : final report of the commission on social determinants of health. In. Geneva: World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43943

Chapter3
Andrews, J., & Higson, H. (2008). Graduate Employability, ‘Soft Skills’ Versus ‘Hard’ Business Knowledge: A European Study. Higher Education in Europe, 33. https://doi.org/10.1080/03797720802522627
Becker, G., Hubbard, W., & Murphy, K. (2010). Explaining the Worldwide Boom in Higher Education of Women. Journal of Human Capital, 4, 203–203. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1681606
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Borghans, L., ter Weel, B., & Weinberg, B. A. (2014). People Skills and the Labor-Market Outcomes of Underrepresented Groups. ILR Review, 67(2), 287–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979391406700202
Chang, Doris T. (2018). Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Policies in Contemporary Taiwan. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), 344–358. Available at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss6/22
Chiu, M.-S. (2019). Exploring models for increasing the effects of school information and communication technology use on learning outcomes through outside-school use and socioeconomic status mediation: the Ecological Techno-Process. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68, 413–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09707-x
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408
Goldin, C., Katz, L. F., & Kuziemko, I. (2006). The homecoming of American college women: The reversal of the college gender gap. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(4), 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.20.4.133
Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.014
Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 373–398. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057
International Labour Office (ILO) (2019). World employment and social outlook: trends 2019. Geneva: Publications Production Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2019/WCMS_670542/lang--en/index.htm
Klasen, S. (2006). UNDP’s Gender‐related Measures: Some Conceptual Problems and Possible Solutions. Journal of Human Development, 7(2), 243–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880600768595
Kuan, P.-Y. (2017). Taiwan education panel survey and beyond/2014: Face to face interview follow-up survey of panel-1/2 CP and panel-1 NCP (Public Access Data) (E10259_3] [Data file].Available from Survey Research DataArchive, Academia Sinica https://doi.org/10.6141/TW-SRDA-E10259_3-2
Kuncel, N. R., Hezlett, S. A., & Ones, D. S. (2004). Academic performance, career potential, creativity, and job performance: Can one construct predict them all? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 148–161. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.148
Laker, D. R., & Powell, J. L. (2011). The differences between hard and soft skills and their relative impact on training transfer. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.20063
Lubinski, D., Webb, R. M., Morelock, M. J., & Benbow, C. P. (2001). Top 1 in 10,000: A 10-year follow-up of the profoundly gifted. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(4), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.718
Mok, K. H. (2016). Massification of higher education, graduate employment and social mobility in the Greater China region. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 37(1), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2015.1111751
Morrissey, T. W., Hutchison, L., & Winsler, A. (2014). Family income, school attendance, and academic achievement in elementary school. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033848
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2020), Gender wage gap (indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/7cee77aa-en. Available at https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm (Accessed on 11 April 2020)
Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: a practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. Educational Leadership, 70 (8), 10–16. https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/LISCenter/2019%20Inequality%20by%20the%20Numbers/Instructor%20Readings/Conwell-2.pdf
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48 (2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Takayama, K. (2017). Imagining East Asian education otherwise: neither caricature, nor scandalization. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(2), 262–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2017.1310697
Thoemmes, F., Mackinnon, D. P., & Reiser, M. R. (2010). Power Analysis for Complex Mediational Designs Using Monte Carlo Methods. Structural Equation Modeling, 17(3), 510–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2010.489379
Walker, R. M., Damanpour, F., & Devece, C. A. (2011). Management Innovation and Organizational Performance: The Mediating Effect of Performance Management. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(2), 367–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muq043
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Chapter two - Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55–123). Academic Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394281-4.00002-7

Chapter4
Berry, R., & Routon, W. (2020). Soft skill change perceptions of accounting majors: Current practitioner views versus their own reality. Journal of Accounting Education, 53, 100691. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccedu.2020.100691
Becker, G. S. (1962). Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Political Economy, 70(5), 9–49. https://doi.org/10.1086/258724
Black, D. A., Haviland, A., Sanders, S. G., & Taylor, L. J. (2008). Gender wage disparities among the highly educated. Journal of Human Resources, 43(3), 630–659. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.43.3.630
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Chang, Doris T. (2018). Gender mainstreaming and gender policies in contemporary Taiwan. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), 344–358. Available at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss6/22
Chiu, M.-S. (2013). Hierarchical models of self-concept across genders and sciences/humanities for college students in Taiwan. ISRN Education, 2013, 960371. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/960371
Cin, F. M., Gümü?, S., & Weiss, F. (2021). Women’s empowerment in the period of the rapid expansion of higher education in Turkey: developments and paradoxes of gender equality in the labour market. Higher Education, 81(1), 31–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00587-2
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
Ganley, C. M., George, C. E., Cimpian, J. R., & Makowski, M. B. (2017). Gender equity in college majors: Looking beyond the STEM/Non-STEM dichotomy for answers regarding female participation. American Educational Research Journal, 55(3), 453–487. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217740221
García-Aracil, A. (2007). Gender earnings gap among young European higher education graduates. Higher Education, 53(4), 431–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-3864-3
García-Aracil, A. (2008). College major and the gender earnings gap: A multi-country examination of postgraduate labour market outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 49(8), 733–757. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-008-9102-y
Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.014
International Labour Office (ILO) (2019). World employment and social outlook: trends 2019. Geneva: Publications Production Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2019/WCMS_670542/lang--en/index.htm
John, J. (2009). Study on the nature of impact of soft skills training programme on the soft skills development of management students. Pacific Business Review, 19–27. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1591331
Morrissey, T. W., Hutchison, L., & Winsler, A. (2014). Family income, school attendance, and academic achievement in elementary school. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033848
Olitsky, N. H. (2014). How do academic achievement and gender affect the earnings of STEM majors? A propensity score matching approach. Research in Higher Education, 55(3), 245–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-013-9310-y
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. Educational Leadership, 70 (8), 10–16. https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/LISCenter/2019%20Inequality%20by%20the%20Numbers/Instructor%20Readings/Conwell-2.pdf
Ritter, B. A., Small, E. E., Mortimer, J. W., & Doll, J. L. (2017). Designing management curriculum for workplace readiness: Developing students’ soft skills. Journal of Management Education, 42(1), 80–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562917703679
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48 (2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Thoemmes, F., Mackinnon, D. P., & Reiser, M. R. (2010). Power analysis for complex mediational designs using Monte Carlo methods. Structural Equation Modeling, 17(3), 510–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2010.489379
Walker, R. M., Damanpour, F., & Devece, C. A. (2011). Management innovation and organizational performance: The mediating effect of performance management. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(2), 367–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muq043
Zafar, B. (2009). College major choice and the gender gap. Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Staff Reports, 48. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1348219

Chapter5
International Labour Office (ILO) (2019). World employment and social outlook: trends 2019. Geneva: Publications Production Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2019/WCMS_670542/lang--en/index.htm
Landivar, L. C., Ruppanner, L., Scarborough, W. J., & Collins, C. (2020). Early signs indicate that COVID-19 is exacerbating gender inequality in the labor force. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 6, 2378023120947997. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120947997
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. Educational Leadership, 70 (8), 10–16. https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/LISCenter/2019%20Inequality%20by%20the%20Numbers/Instructor%20Readings/Conwell-2.pdf
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Chapter two - Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55–123). Academic Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394281-4.00002-7
描述 博士
國立政治大學
教育學系
107152518
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0107152518
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 邱美秀zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Chiu, Mei-Shiuen_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 朱梅花zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Zhu, Mei-Huaen_US
dc.creator (作者) 朱梅花zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Zhu, Mei-Huaen_US
dc.date (日期) 2021en_US
dc.date.accessioned 4-Aug-2021 16:13:38 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 4-Aug-2021 16:13:38 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 4-Aug-2021 16:13:38 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0107152518en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/136630-
dc.description (描述) 博士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 教育學系zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 107152518zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 勞動力市場的性別不平等是一個關鍵的全球性問題，性別薪資差異在許多國家的不同層面廣泛存在，數十年來一直是公眾關注的問題。前所未有的疫情加劇了國家內部和國家之間存在的收入不平等。而教育理應成為縮小薪資差距和收入不平等的工具，因此本文著重探索臺灣教育長期追蹤資料庫:後續調查(TEPS-B) 以及關於薪資差異的文獻，包含以下研究。
研究一針對1980年至2020年發表的性別薪資差異研究進行了文獻計量分析。它描繪了經濟、社會學和教育三個特定領域中性別薪資差異研究的主要發展及其隨時間的演變。隨後的兩項研究主要通過從TEPS-B中提取數據來研究台灣的相關情況。
研究二考察了TEPS-B中的學業成績和軟技能的性別差異，及其對性別薪資差異的影響。它通過分析相關數據來呈現性別薪資差異的狀況，以及基於社會文化理論的潛在解釋，從而提供了一些關於性別薪資差異的見解。
研究三擴展了研究二的研究，進一步探討了大學專業學門對收入、學業成績和軟技能的性別差異的調節作用。最後，第五章通過總結三項研究的發現來概述論文，並提出對未來研究和教育實踐的啟示。		zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) Gender inequality in the labour market is a key global issue, the gender wage gap is widely existed at different levels in many countries and has been a public concern over decades. The unprecedented COVID-19 pandemic has exacerbated the earning inequality existing both within and across countries. Education is expected to be the great equalizer that narrows the gap and shrinks the income inequality. This thesis presents three studies on gender wage gap.
Study 1 reports on a bibliometric analysis of gender wage gap research published from 1980 to 2020. It delineates the main development of gender wage gap research in three specific fields of economy, sociology, and education, and its evolution over time. The subsequent two studies primarily focused on Taiwan context by extracting data from Taiwan Education Panel Survey and Beyond (TEPS-B).
Study 2 examines the gender difference in academic achievement and soft skills in higher education, and their impact on gender wage gap. It provides some insights on gender wage gap by presenting new empirical estimates to illustrate the extent of the gender wage gap and their potential explanations based on sociocultural theory.
Lastly, Study 3 extends from the previous study and further examines moderating effects of college major on gender differences in income, academic achievement, and soft skills. Finally, Chapter 5 concludes the thesis by summarizing findings across the three studies and proposes implications for future research and educational practice.		en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents Acknowledgement ii
Abstract iv
Table of Contents v
List of Tables viii
List of Figures ix
Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Research Motivation 1
Overview of the Study 2
Key Terms of the Study 3
References 5
Chapter 2 Research on Gender Wage Gap: A Bibliometric Analysis (1980-2020) (Study I) 7
Abstract 7
Introduction 8
Gender Wage Gap and Economy 8
Gender Wage Gap and Sociology 8
Gender Wage Gap and Education 9
Research Questions 10
Method 11
Data Sources 11
Data Analysis 11
Results 12
An overview of gender wage gap research 12
Annual production of gender wage gap research 13
Journals publishing relevant research 15
Top authors of relevant research 17
Most cited documents in gender wage gap research 19
Analysis of keywords 21
Discussion 28
Insights from the Economic studies 28
Insights from the Sociological studies 29
Insights from the Educational and Psychological studies 29
Strengths and Limitations 31
Conclusions 31
References 32
Chapter 3 Transitions from Higher Education to Work: Gender Differences in Soft Skills for Income (Study II) 36
Abstract 36
Introduction 36
The Gender Wage Gap 37
Theoretical Basis for Gender Wage Gap 38
Relations between Academic Achievement and Income 39
Relations between Soft Skills and Income 40
Taiwan Context 41
The Present Study and Hypotheses 41
Methods 42
Data Sources and Sample 42
Measures 42
Data Analysis 43
Results 44
The Significant Gender Wage Gap 44
Correlation and Regression Analyses on Variables 45
Mediating Effects of Soft Skills on Income 46
Discussion 49
The Gender Wage Gap in Taiwan 49
Gender Difference in the Significance of Education on Wage 50
Gender Difference in the Significance of Soft Skills on Wage 51
Conclusion 52
References 54
Chapter 4 Transitions from Higher Education to Work: Gender Differences in fields of study for Income (Study III) 57
Introduction 57
Rationales for Moderating Effects of College Major on Gender Differences in Income 58
Rationales for Moderating Effects of College Major on Gender Differences in Soft Skills 58
Rationales for Moderating Effects of College Major on Gender Differences in Achievement 59
Research Questions 60
Methods 60
Data Sources and Sample 60
Measures 62
Data Analysis 63
Results 64
Gender differences in achievement, job income and soft skills for different college majors 64
Path estimate differences in Model B for different gender, domain, and gender by domain 65
Discussion 74
Different effects of soft skills on wage between Humanities and Science majors 74
Different effects of academic achievement on wage between Humanities and Science majors 74
Conclusion 75
References 77
Chapter 5 General Discussion 80
Summary of Findings: Studies 1-3 80
Implications for Educational Practice 81
References 82
Appendices 83
A: The Measures from TEPS-B 83
B: The R Syntax for Path Analysis 84
C: The R Syntax for Multi-group Analysis 84

Table 1 An Overview of Gender Wage Gap Research Paper 12
Table 2 Most cited articles by total citations and total citations per year 20
Table 3 Results of correlation test for income, scores, and soft kills 45
Table 4 Results of income regressed on college entrance scores and soft skills 46
Table 5 Selected parameters for models A-B 47
Table 6 Descriptive Statistic 67
Table 7 Results for Tests of Between-subjects Effects with Gender and Major as the Independent Variables (Effect) and the Three Measures (soft skills, scores, and income) as the Dependent Variables 68
Table 8 Results for Tests of Between-subjects Effects with Four Groups (2 genders * 2 majors) as the Independent Variables (Effect) and the Three Measures (soft skills, scores, and income) as the Dependent Variables 69
Table 9 Selected parameters, fit indices, and information criteria values for Model B (multiple group SEM) 70
Table 10 Selected parameters for Model B (single group SEM) 70

Figure 1 Annual production of gender wage gap research in economic journals 13
Figure 2 Annual production of gender wage gap research in social journals 14
Figure 3 Annual production of gender wage gap research in educational journals 14
Figure 4 Top ten economic journals publishing gender wage gap research 16
Figure 5 Top ten social journals publishing gender wage gap research 16
Figure 6 Top ten educational journals publishing gender wage gap research 17
Figure 7 Top economists’ production over time 18
Figure 8 Top sociologists’ production over time 18
Figure 9 Top psychologists’ production over time 19
Figure 10 Keywords with the strongest citation bursts in economic studies 23
Figure 11 Keywords with the strongest citation bursts in social studies 24
Figure 12 Keywords with the strongest citation bursts in educational studies 25
Figure 13 Co-occurrence network by keywords in economic studies 26
Figure 14 Co-occurrence network by keywords in social studies 27
Figure 15 Co-occurrence network by keywords in educational studies 27
Figure 16 Path model for all 48
Figure 17 Path model for females 48
Figure 18 Path model for males 49
Figure 19 The mediating effects examined in this study 62
Figure 20 Path Model for Humanities 71
Figure 21 Path Model for Science 71
Figure 22 Path Model for Male-Humanities 72
Figure 23 Path Model for Female-Humanities 72
Figure 24 Path Model for Male-Science 73
Figure 25 Path Model for Female-Science 73		zh_TW
dc.format.extent 5144082 bytes-
dc.format.mimetype application/pdf-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0107152518en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 性別薪資差異zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 軟技能zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 大學專業zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 學測成績zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 不平等zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) gender wage gapen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) soft skillen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) college majoren_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) entrance scoreen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) inequalityen_US
dc.title (題名) 性別薪資差異：世界趨勢、學生軟實力和專業領域zh_TW
dc.title (題名) Gender Wage Gap: World Trend, Soft Skills, and Fields of Studyen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen_US
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Chapter 1
Becker, G. S. (1962). Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Political Economy, 70(5), 9–49. https://doi.org/10.1086/258724
Black, D. A., Haviland, A., Sanders, S. G., & Taylor, L. J. (2008). Gender wage disparities among the highly educated. Journal of Human Resources, 43(3), 630–659. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.43.3.630
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Chang, Doris T. (2018). Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Policies in Contemporary Taiwan. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), 344–358. Available at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss6/22
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408
García-Aracil, A. (2008). College major and the gender earnings gap: A multi-country examination of postgraduate labour market outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 49(8), 733–757. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-008-9102-y
Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.014
International Labour Office (ILO) (2019). World Employment and Social Outlook: Trends 2019. Geneva: Publications Production Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO.
Kuan, P.-Y. (2017). Taiwan education panel survey and beyond/2014: Face to face interview follow-up survey of panel-1/2 CP and panel-1 NCP (Public Access Data) (E10259_3] [Data file]. Available from Survey Research DataArchive, Academia Sinica doi: https://doi.org/10.6141/TW-SRDA-E10259_3-2
Laker, D. R., & Powell, J. L. (2011). The differences between hard and soft skills and their relative impact on training transfer. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.20063
Landivar, L. C., Ruppanner, L., Scarborough, W. J., & Collins, C. (2020). Early Signs Indicate That COVID-19 Is Exacerbating Gender Inequality in the Labor Force. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 6, 2378023120947997. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120947997
Lubinski, D., Webb, R. M., Morelock, M. J., & Benbow, C. P. (2001). Top 1 in 10,000: A 10-year follow-up of the profoundly gifted. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(4), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.718
Morrissey, T. W., Hutchison, L., & Winsler, A. (2014). Family income, school attendance, and academic achievement in elementary school. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033848
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2020), Gender wage gap (indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/7cee77aa-en. Available at https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm (Accessed on 11 April 2020)
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. Educational Leadership, 70 (8), 10–16. https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/LISCenter/2019%20Inequality%20by%20the%20Numbers/Instructor%20Readings/Conwell-2.pdf
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Chapter two - Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55-123). Academic Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394281-4.00002-7
Zafar, B. (2009). College major choice and the gender gap. Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Staff Reports, 48. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1348219

Chapter2
Albrecht, J., Bronson, M. A., Thoursie, P. S., & Vroman, S. (2018). The career dynamics of high-skilled women and men: Evidence from Sweden. European Economic Review, 105, 83–102. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.euroecorev.2018.03.012
Andreoni, J., & Petrie, R. (2008). Beauty, gender and stereotypes: Evidence from laboratory experiments. Journal of Economic Psychology, 29(1), 73–93. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2007.07.008
Aria, M., & Cuccurullo, C. (2017). bibliometrix: An R-tool for comprehensive science mapping analysis. Journal of Informetrics, 11(4), 959–975. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joi.2017.08.007
Arulampalam, W., Booth, A. L., & Bryan, M. L. (2007). Is there a glass ceiling over Europe? Exploring the gender pay gap across the wage distribution. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 60(2), 163–186. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25249069
Becker, J. C., Zawadzki, M. J., & Shields, S. A. (2014). Confronting and reducing sexism: A call for research on intervention. Journal of Social Issues, 70(4), 603–614. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12081
Black, D. A., Haviland, A., Sanders, S. G., & Taylor, L. J. (2008). Gender wage disparities among the highly educated. Journal of Human Resources, 43(3), 630–659. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.43.3.630
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Bobbitt-Zeher, D. (2007). The gender income gap and the role of education. Sociology of Education, 80(1), 1–22. https://doi.org/10.1177/003804070708000101
Bouchard, L., Albertini, M., Batista, R., & de Montigny, J. (2015). Research on health inequalities: A bibliometric analysis (1966-2014). Soc Sci Med, 141, 100–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.07.022
Bylsma, W. H., & Major, B. (1994). Social comparisons and contentment: Exploring the psychological costs of the gender wage gap. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 18(2), 241–249. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-6402.1994.tb00453.x
Card, D., & DiNardo, J. E. (2002). Skill biased technological change and rising wage inequality: Some problems and puzzles. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper Series, No. 8769. https://doi.org/10.3386/w8769
Ceci, S. J., Ginther, D. K., Kahn, S., & Williams, W. M. (2014). Women in academic science: A changing landscape. Psychological Science in the Public Interest, 15(3), 75–141. https://doi.org/10.1177/1529100614541236
Cha, Y., & Weeden, K. A. (2014). Overwork and the slow convergence in the gender gap in wages. American Sociological Review, 79(3), 457–484. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122414528936
Chen, C. (2006). CiteSpace II: Detecting and visualizing emerging trends and transient patterns in scientific literature. Journal of the American Society for Information Science and Technology, 57, 359–377. https://doi.org/10.1002/asi.20317
Cohen, P. N., & Huffman, M. L. (2007). Working for the woman? Female managers and the gender wage gap. American Sociological Review, 72(5), 681–704. http://www.jstor.org/stable/25472487
England, P., Bearak, J., Budig, M. J., & Hodges, M. J. (2016). Do highly paid, highly skilled women experience the largest motherhood penalty? American Sociological Review, 81(6), 1161–1189. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122416673598
Even, W. E., & Macpherson, D. A. (1990). The gender gap in pensions and wages. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 72(2), 259–265. https://doi.org/10.2307/2109715
Fuller, S., & Hirsh, C. E. (2018). “Family-Friendly” jobs and motherhood pay penalties: The impact of flexible work arrangements across the educational spectrum. Work and Occupations, 46(1), 3–44. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888418771116
Galor, O., & Weil, D. N. (1996). The gender gap, fertility, and growth. The American Economic Review, 86(3), 374–387. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2118202
Guo, Y.-M., Huang, Z.-L., Guo, J., Li, H., Guo, X.-R., & Nkeli, M. J. (2019). Bibliometric analysis on smart cities research. Sustainability, 11(13). https://doi.org/10.3390/su11133606
Heckman, J. J., & LaFontaine, P. A. (2010). The American high school graduation rate: trends and levels. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 92(2), 244–262. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27867535
Heilman, M. E., & Caleo, S. (2018). Combatting gender discrimination: A lack of fit framework. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations, 21(5), 725–744. https://doi.org/10.1177/1368430218761587
Jackson, L., & Grabski, S. (1988). Perceptions of fair pay and the gender wage gap. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 18(7), 606–625. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1559-1816.1988.tb00040.x
Jacob, B. (2002). Where the boys aren’t: Non-cognitive skills, returns to school and the gender gap in higher education. Economics of Education Review, 21, 589-598. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(01)00051-6
Judge, T., Livingston, B., & Hurst, C. (2011). Do nice guys-and gals-really finish last? The joint effects of sex and agreeableness on income. Journal of personality and social psychology, 102, 390–407. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026021
Kim, J., Lee, J.-W., & Shin, K. (2016). Gender inequality and economic growth in Korea. Pacific Economic Review. https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0106.12181
Korpi, W., Ferrarini, T., & Englund, S. (2013). Women’s opportunities under different family policy constellations: Gender, class, and inequality tradeoffs in western countries re-examined. Social Politics: International Studies in Gender, State & Society, 20(1), 1–40. https://doi.org/10.1093/sp/jxs028
Landivar, L. C., Ruppanner, L., Scarborough, W. J., & Collins, C. (2020). Early signs indicate that COVID-19 is exacerbating gender inequality in the labor force. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 6, 2378023120947997. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120947997
Lin, A. J., Hsu, C.-L., & Chiang, C.-H. (2016). Retracted article: Bibliometric study of electronic commerce research in information systems & MIS Journals. Scientometrics, 109(3), 1455–1476. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11192-020-03818-6
Ma, X., & Piao, X. (2019). The impact of intra-household bargaining power on happiness of married women: Evidence from Japan. Journal of Happiness Studies, 20(6), 1775–1806. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10902-018-0023-y
Manzoni, A., & Streib, J. (2019). The equalizing power of a college degree for first-generation college students: Disparities across institutions, majors, and achievement levels. Research in Higher Education, 60(5), 577–605. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-018-9523-1
Maume, D. (1999). Glass ceilings and glass escalators. Work and Occupations: An International Sociological Journal, 26, 483–509. https://doi.org/10.1177/0730888499026004005
McGuinness, S., & Bennett, J. (2007). Overeducation in the graduate labour market: A quantile regression approach. Economics of Education Review, 26(5), 521–531. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.econedurev.2005.12.003
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2020), Gender wage gap (indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/7cee77aa-en. Available at https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm (Accessed on 11 April 2020)
Reskin, B. F. (1988). Bringing the men back in: Sex differentiation and the devaluation of women’s work. Gender & Society, 2(1), 58–81. https://doi.org/10.1177/089124388002001005
Solbes-Canales, I., Valverde-Montesino, S., & Herranz-Hernandez, P. (2020). Socialization of gender stereotypes related to attributes and professions among young Spanish school-aged children. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 609. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00609
Stevenson, B., & Wolfers, J. (2007). Marriage and divorce: Changes and their driving forces. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 21, 27–52. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1007827
Terborg, J. R., & Ilgen, D. R. (1975). A theoretical approach to sex discrimination in traditionally masculine occupations. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 13(3), 352–376. https://doi.org/10.1016/0030-5073(75)90056-2
Waldfogel, J. (1998). Understanding the "Family Gap" in pay for women with children. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 12(1), 137–156. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.12.1.137
World Health Organization Commission on Social Determinants of Health (WHO-CSDH). (2008). Closing the gap in a generation : health equity through action on the social determinants of health : final report of the commission on social determinants of health. In. Geneva: World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/43943

Chapter3
Andrews, J., & Higson, H. (2008). Graduate Employability, ‘Soft Skills’ Versus ‘Hard’ Business Knowledge: A European Study. Higher Education in Europe, 33. https://doi.org/10.1080/03797720802522627
Becker, G., Hubbard, W., & Murphy, K. (2010). Explaining the Worldwide Boom in Higher Education of Women. Journal of Human Capital, 4, 203–203. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1681606
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Extent, Trends, and Explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Borghans, L., ter Weel, B., & Weinberg, B. A. (2014). People Skills and the Labor-Market Outcomes of Underrepresented Groups. ILR Review, 67(2), 287–334. https://doi.org/10.1177/001979391406700202
Chang, Doris T. (2018). Gender Mainstreaming and Gender Policies in Contemporary Taiwan. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), 344–358. Available at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss6/22
Chiu, M.-S. (2019). Exploring models for increasing the effects of school information and communication technology use on learning outcomes through outside-school use and socioeconomic status mediation: the Ecological Techno-Process. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68, 413–436. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-019-09707-x
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155–159. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
Eagly, A. H., & Wood, W. (1999). The origins of sex differences in human behavior: Evolved dispositions versus social roles. American Psychologist, 54(6), 408–423. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.6.408
Goldin, C., Katz, L. F., & Kuziemko, I. (2006). The homecoming of American college women: The reversal of the college gender gap. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 20(4), 133–156. https://doi.org/10.1257/jep.20.4.133
Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.014
Hyde, J. S. (2014). Gender similarities and differences. Annual Review of Psychology, 65, 373–398. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115057
International Labour Office (ILO) (2019). World employment and social outlook: trends 2019. Geneva: Publications Production Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2019/WCMS_670542/lang--en/index.htm
Klasen, S. (2006). UNDP’s Gender‐related Measures: Some Conceptual Problems and Possible Solutions. Journal of Human Development, 7(2), 243–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649880600768595
Kuan, P.-Y. (2017). Taiwan education panel survey and beyond/2014: Face to face interview follow-up survey of panel-1/2 CP and panel-1 NCP (Public Access Data) (E10259_3] [Data file].Available from Survey Research DataArchive, Academia Sinica https://doi.org/10.6141/TW-SRDA-E10259_3-2
Kuncel, N. R., Hezlett, S. A., & Ones, D. S. (2004). Academic performance, career potential, creativity, and job performance: Can one construct predict them all? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 86(1), 148–161. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.86.1.148
Laker, D. R., & Powell, J. L. (2011). The differences between hard and soft skills and their relative impact on training transfer. Human Resource Development Quarterly, 22(1), 111–122. https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.20063
Lubinski, D., Webb, R. M., Morelock, M. J., & Benbow, C. P. (2001). Top 1 in 10,000: A 10-year follow-up of the profoundly gifted. Journal of Applied Psychology, 86(4), 718–729. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.86.4.718
Mok, K. H. (2016). Massification of higher education, graduate employment and social mobility in the Greater China region. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 37(1), 51–71. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2015.1111751
Morrissey, T. W., Hutchison, L., & Winsler, A. (2014). Family income, school attendance, and academic achievement in elementary school. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033848
Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) (2020), Gender wage gap (indicator). https://doi.org/10.1787/7cee77aa-en. Available at https://data.oecd.org/earnwage/gender-wage-gap.htm (Accessed on 11 April 2020)
Lakens, D. (2013). Calculating and reporting effect sizes to facilitate cumulative science: a practical primer for t-tests and ANOVAs. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 863. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00863
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. Educational Leadership, 70 (8), 10–16. https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/LISCenter/2019%20Inequality%20by%20the%20Numbers/Instructor%20Readings/Conwell-2.pdf
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48 (2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Takayama, K. (2017). Imagining East Asian education otherwise: neither caricature, nor scandalization. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 37(2), 262–274. https://doi.org/10.1080/02188791.2017.1310697
Thoemmes, F., Mackinnon, D. P., & Reiser, M. R. (2010). Power Analysis for Complex Mediational Designs Using Monte Carlo Methods. Structural Equation Modeling, 17(3), 510–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2010.489379
Walker, R. M., Damanpour, F., & Devece, C. A. (2011). Management Innovation and Organizational Performance: The Mediating Effect of Performance Management. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(2), 367–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muq043
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Chapter two - Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55–123). Academic Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394281-4.00002-7

Chapter4
Berry, R., & Routon, W. (2020). Soft skill change perceptions of accounting majors: Current practitioner views versus their own reality. Journal of Accounting Education, 53, 100691. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaccedu.2020.100691
Becker, G. S. (1962). Investment in human capital: A theoretical analysis. Journal of Political Economy, 70(5), 9–49. https://doi.org/10.1086/258724
Black, D. A., Haviland, A., Sanders, S. G., & Taylor, L. J. (2008). Gender wage disparities among the highly educated. Journal of Human Resources, 43(3), 630–659. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.43.3.630
Blau, F. D., & Kahn, L. M. (2017). The gender wage gap: Extent, trends, and explanations. Journal of Economic Literature, 55(3), 789–865. https://doi.org/10.1257/jel.20160995
Chang, Doris T. (2018). Gender mainstreaming and gender policies in contemporary Taiwan. Journal of International Women’s Studies, 19(6), 344–358. Available at: https://vc.bridgew.edu/jiws/vol19/iss6/22
Chiu, M.-S. (2013). Hierarchical models of self-concept across genders and sciences/humanities for college students in Taiwan. ISRN Education, 2013, 960371. https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/960371
Cin, F. M., Gümü?, S., & Weiss, F. (2021). Women’s empowerment in the period of the rapid expansion of higher education in Turkey: developments and paradoxes of gender equality in the labour market. Higher Education, 81(1), 31–50. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00587-2
Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of Family Psychology, 19(2), 294–304. https://doi.org/10.1037/0893-3200.19.2.294
Ganley, C. M., George, C. E., Cimpian, J. R., & Makowski, M. B. (2017). Gender equity in college majors: Looking beyond the STEM/Non-STEM dichotomy for answers regarding female participation. American Educational Research Journal, 55(3), 453–487. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831217740221
García-Aracil, A. (2007). Gender earnings gap among young European higher education graduates. Higher Education, 53(4), 431–455. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-005-3864-3
García-Aracil, A. (2008). College major and the gender earnings gap: A multi-country examination of postgraduate labour market outcomes. Research in Higher Education, 49(8), 733–757. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-008-9102-y
Hair, J. F., Jr., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., & Anderson, R. E. (2010). Multivariate data analysis: A global perspective (7th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.
Heckman, J. J., & Kautz, T. (2012). Hard evidence on soft skills. Labour Economics, 19(4), 451–464. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.labeco.2012.05.014
International Labour Office (ILO) (2019). World employment and social outlook: trends 2019. Geneva: Publications Production Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2019/WCMS_670542/lang--en/index.htm
John, J. (2009). Study on the nature of impact of soft skills training programme on the soft skills development of management students. Pacific Business Review, 19–27. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1591331
Morrissey, T. W., Hutchison, L., & Winsler, A. (2014). Family income, school attendance, and academic achievement in elementary school. Developmental Psychology, 50(3), 741–753. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033848
Olitsky, N. H. (2014). How do academic achievement and gender affect the earnings of STEM majors? A propensity score matching approach. Research in Higher Education, 55(3), 245–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11162-013-9310-y
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. Educational Leadership, 70 (8), 10–16. https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/LISCenter/2019%20Inequality%20by%20the%20Numbers/Instructor%20Readings/Conwell-2.pdf
Ritter, B. A., Small, E. E., Mortimer, J. W., & Doll, J. L. (2017). Designing management curriculum for workplace readiness: Developing students’ soft skills. Journal of Management Education, 42(1), 80–103. https://doi.org/10.1177/1052562917703679
Rosseel, Y. (2012). lavaan: An R package for structural equation modeling. Journal of Statistical Software, 48 (2), 1–36. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v048.i02
Thoemmes, F., Mackinnon, D. P., & Reiser, M. R. (2010). Power analysis for complex mediational designs using Monte Carlo methods. Structural Equation Modeling, 17(3), 510–534. https://doi.org/10.1080/10705511.2010.489379
Walker, R. M., Damanpour, F., & Devece, C. A. (2011). Management innovation and organizational performance: The mediating effect of performance management. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory, 21(2), 367–386. https://doi.org/10.1093/jopart/muq043
Zafar, B. (2009). College major choice and the gender gap. Federal Reserve Bank of New York, Staff Reports, 48. https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1348219

Chapter5
International Labour Office (ILO) (2019). World employment and social outlook: trends 2019. Geneva: Publications Production Unit (PRODOC) of the ILO. https://www.ilo.org/global/research/global-reports/weso/2019/WCMS_670542/lang--en/index.htm
Landivar, L. C., Ruppanner, L., Scarborough, W. J., & Collins, C. (2020). Early signs indicate that COVID-19 is exacerbating gender inequality in the labor force. Socius: Sociological Research for a Dynamic World, 6, 2378023120947997. https://doi.org/10.1177/2378023120947997
Reardon, S.F. (2013). The widening income achievement gap. Educational Leadership, 70 (8), 10–16. https://www.gc.cuny.edu/CUNY_GC/media/LISCenter/2019%20Inequality%20by%20the%20Numbers/Instructor%20Readings/Conwell-2.pdf
Wood, W., & Eagly, A. H. (2012). Chapter two - Biosocial construction of sex differences and similarities in behavior. In J. M. Olson & M. P. Zanna (Eds.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 46, pp. 55–123). Academic Press. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394281-4.00002-7		zh_TW
dc.identifier.doi (DOI) 10.6814/NCCU202101065en_US