1. NCCU Academic Hub
  2. 學術產出
  3. College of Law
  4. Theses
  5. Item

學術產出-Theses

Article View/Open

Publication Export

Google ScholarTM

政大圖書館

Citation Infomation

題名 為什麼戴口罩？ ——個體性與臺美疫情下的法意識比較
Why Wear a Mask? - Individuality and a Comparison of Legal Consciousness in Taiwan and USA During the Pandemic
作者 黃翊
Huang, Yi
貢獻者 王曉丹
Wang, Hsiao-Tan
黃翊
Huang, Yi
關鍵詞 法意識
個體性
個人主義
集體主義
COVID-19
口罩
Legal consciousness
Individuality
Individualism
Collectivism
COVID-19
Mask
日期 2022
上傳時間 5-Oct-2022 09:24:42 (UTC+8)
摘要 2020年COVID-19疫情席捲全球，各國政府相繼制定相關防疫措施，其中強制人民在公共場所戴口罩被視為是一種有效抑制病毒傳播的手段，然而口罩強制規定在各國文化下卻有著截然不同的迴響。身處於東亞文化圈的我們多數採取順從的姿態，不過在其他疫情更加嚴重的歐美地區，卻相繼出現了反對口罩規定的聲浪。
究竟人們為什麼戴口罩？Lu等（2021）的研究中指出，一地區的戴口罩比例和集體－個人主義文化指數有很大的關聯性，說明了集體和個人主義文化傾向將會影響到人們遵守口罩規定的意願。但由於目前大部分的疫情研究都是透過問卷所進行的量化分析，無法呈現出疫情下個體和集體的互動過程，亦無法解釋該互動又如何影響個人戴口罩的行為。為了深入理解此一社會過程，本研究以1918年西班牙流感疫情下的美國、2020年COVID-19疫情下的臺灣與美國——三個不同時空背景的案例作為核心，進行臺美疫情下的「法意識」比較研究。
所謂「法意識」即人們經驗、理解或實踐法律的方式，該領域研究強調個人與其他集體的互動關係對其自我認同與法意識的影響力（Chua & Engel，2019）。本研究透過比較不同時空案例中個體與集體的互動方式，呈現出疫情下法意識的形塑過程，並發現在個人和集體主義文化的圖像下，集體意識對個體法意識之發展有重大影響，其中「政治」、「社會危機感」，及「特殊的歷史脈絡」更是影響個體戴口罩行為的強力因素。
此外，由於東西方文化在不同的歷史脈絡下，個人與集體的互動方式有不同的運作邏輯，本文因此透過費孝通（1948）團體格局與差序格局的理論解釋其中的差異性，以作為臺美疫情下法意識圖像的論述補充。
最後，本研究透過歷史比較分析，體現出個體性在法意識研究中的重要性。無論是在集體或個人主義文化之下，或是身處團體格局或差序格局的邏輯之中，人們是否遵守強制規定，皆和其個體性有很大的關聯性。本文主張，在特定時空歷史下持續被建構出來的習性，以及依此所形塑出來的個人和集體互動的文化模式，這些個體性乃是形塑人們法意識的核心關鍵。
Since 2020, COVID-19 has claimed the globe. Governments enact various prevention policies, among which forcing people to wear a mask in public places is considered an effective way of slowing virus transmission. However, reactions to coercive mask-wearing vary in different countries and cultures. Most East-Asian cultures abide by these regulations, while disapproval or objections emerge in Euro-American region, where the pandemic seriously strikes.
Why do people wear masks? Lu et al. (2021) point out the strong correlation between collectivism–individualism index and the percentage of people wearing a mask. This suggests that the tendency of collectivistic and individualistic cultures will affect if people wear a mask. Unfortunately, most studies on the pandemic are based on quantitative surveys, which neither help to represent the interaction between the individual and the collective, nor understand how the interaction influences the individual’s decision on mask-wearing. In order to comprehend this social process, this study targets the U.S. under the 1918 Spanish Flu, and the U.S. and Taiwan under 2020 COVID-19 as three cases of different spatial-temporal setting so as to conduct a comparative study on legal consciousness of Taiwan and the U.S.
The so-called “legal consciousness” is the way people experience, understand, or practice laws. The research field emphasizes the influence of the interaction between the individual and the collective on personal identity and legal consciousness (Chua & Engel 2019). This study compares the interaction between the individual and the collective in the three cases, shows the formation of legal consciousness under the pandemic, and discovers that, in collectivistic and individualistic cultures, collective consciousness has great influence on the development of individual’s legal consciousness, in which “politics”, “social awareness of crisis” and specific historical context” are deciding factors in wearing a mask.
Moreover, due to different historical context of Eastern and Western cultures, the logic of the interaction between the individual and the collective varies. The study thus explains the difference between “organizational mode of association” and “differential mode of association” (Fei 1948) as complement to the legal consciousness of Taiwan and the U.S. under the pandemic.
Lastly, through comparative historical analysis, the study demonstrates the importance of individuality in the study of legal consciousness. Both in collectivistic and individualistic cultures, and in organizational mode of association and differential mode of association, whether or not people follow coercive actions correlates to their individuality. This study therefore argues that, habitus constructed in specific historical context, and cultural patterns of interaction between individuals and the collective formed by which, are individuality that is central to the formation of people’s legal consciousness.
參考文獻 一、中文文獻
（ㄧ）專書
Brown, J.（2020）。百年抗疫 : 1918後被流感改變的世界（王晨瑜譯）。臺北：今周刊出版。（原著出版於2018年）
Kolata, G.（2020）。流行性感冒：1918流感全球大流行及致命病毒之發現（黃約翰譯）。臺北：商周出版。（原著出版於1999年）
Spinney, L.（2021）。世紀大瘟疫後的變與不變：西班牙流感的歷史借鏡（陳芳智、陳志金譯）。臺北：原水文化。（原著出版於2018年）
Triandis, H.C.（2016）。個人主義與集體主義（周宛青譯）。臺北：好優文化。（原著出版於1995年）
王梅玲（2005）。英美與亞太地區圖書資訊學教育。臺北市：文華。
費孝通（1948）。鄉土中國（2017版）。香港：香港中和出版。
衛生福利疾病管制署（2013）。防疫風雲系列001——SARS10年 生聚與教訓。臺北：衛生福利疾病管制署出版。

（二）期刊論文
王曉丹（2018）。法意識探索：關係自我的情感衡平。政治與社會哲學評論，67，103-159。
王曉丹（2022）。法意識：作為文化實踐的法律。政大法學評論特刊（已通過審查）。
吳易珉（2021）。我國因應新冠肺炎法制之分析－以口罩規制為中心〔未出版之碩士論文〕。國立清華大學科技法律研究所。
李庭芝（2020）。走過SARS──台灣防疫的浴火重生。人本教育札記，370，23-27。
林工凱、謝碧珠（2020）。嚴重特殊傳染性肺炎疫情下應變處置措施之探討。臺灣醫界，63（8），49-58。
侯新民、何樹勛（2010）中國文化集體主義／個人主義緯度的再分析。Sino-US English Teaching, 7(5), 33-38。
柯雨瑞、蔡政杰、張育芝、孟顯珍（2020）。試論我國防治新型冠狀病毒（COVID－19）之現況、面臨困境與可行之回應對策。危機管理學刊，17（2），73-90。
柯雨瑞、鐘太宏、黃翠紋（2020）。因應新型冠狀肺炎（COVID-19）疫情影響下之法律應變體系規劃及執法作為之問題與對策。危機管理學刊，18(2)，49-62。
曾金花、張彥敏（2012）。1918-1919大流感傳播的原因及其影響。首都師範大學學報：社會科學版，1，19-23。
詹祐維（2020）。傳染病防治法強制隔離措施之檢討－以釋字690號解釋為中心。萬國法律，231，13-23。
齊力（2003）。個人主義、集體主義與家族主義：三角關係的概念格局。市師設教學報，2，115-145。
魏然、李若筠（2021）。為人為己：新聞關注和文化取向如何影響美國民眾對新冠病毒的認知與防疫行為。傳播與社會學刊，58，203-253。

（三）網路資料
中華民國總統府（2020年2月27日）。副總統接受《日本產業經濟新聞社》專訪。中華民國總統府。檢自：https://www.president.gov.tw/NEWS/25241
王梅玲（2012）。比較研究。圖書館學與資訊科學大辭典。檢自：https://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/1679273/ （2022年5月18日）
王雪俐（2020年5月10日）。德國研究分析：為何臺灣防疫經驗不易複製。報呱。檢自：https://www.pourquoi.tw/2020/05/10/intlnews-euaf-200504-200510-1/
但昭偉（2000）個性。教育大辭書。檢自：http://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/1308024/（2022年6月6日）
李定宇（2022年2月18日）。不戴口罩、居隔外出 新北半年開罰780件、541萬元。聯合新聞網。檢自：https://udn.com/news/story/120940/6105857
李樹人（2021年1月19日）。回首SARS／如果早一點處理和平醫院 張上淳：當年或許能避免院內感染。元氣網。檢自：https://health.udn.com/health/story/6001/4312063
洪彩綸（2021年7月18日）。3級防疫違規！台中開罰千萬元 未戴口罩最多。TVBS新聞網。檢自：https://news.tvbs.com.tw/life/1547916
風傳媒（2020年8月2日）。就是不願戴口罩》數萬德國人上街頭抗議防疫措施：「口罩讓我們成為奴隸！」。風傳媒。檢自：https://www.storm.mg/article/2907451
張子午（2020年3月13日）。重返和平──SARS隔離黑洞中難以告別的記憶。報導者。檢自：https://www.twreporter.org/a/sars-memories-life-under-quarantine-in-heping-hospital
費爾南多•杜阿特（Fernando Duarte）（2020年4月30日）。後疫情時代：1918年西班牙流感大流行如何改變了世界。BBC中文。檢自：https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/world-52467463
臺南市政府（2020年8月14日）。為防範新冠肺炎社區傳播，8月17日起民眾至台南市八類場所需配帶口罩。臺南市政府。檢自：https://www.tainan.gov.tw/News_Content.aspx?n=13371&s=7703066

二、英文文獻
（一）專書
Bereday, G. Z. F.(1964). Comparative Method in Education. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Engel, D. M., & Engel, J. S. (2010). Tort, Custom, and Karma - Globalization and Legal Consciousness in Thailand. California‎: Stanford University Press.
Engel, D. M., & Munger, F.(2003). Rights of Inclusion: Law and Identity in the Life Stories of Americans With Disabilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture`s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Newbury Park, California: SAGE.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture`s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations, Second Edition. Newbury Park, California: SAGE.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. United Kingdom, London: McGraw-Hill.
Honigsbaum, M. (2013). A History Of The Great Influenza Pandemics: Death, Panic And Hysteria, 1830-1920. London: I.B.Tauris.

（二）期刊論文
Abrego, L. J. (2019). Relational Legal Consciousness of U.S. Citizenship: Privilege, Responsibility, Guilt, and Love in Latino Mixed-Status Families. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 53(3), 641-670. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12414
Barceló, J., & Sheen, G. C.-H. (2021). Voluntary Adoption of Social Welfare-Enhancing Behavior: Mask-Wearing in Spain During the COVID-19 Outbreak. PLoS ONE 15(12): e0242764. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242764
Barro, R. J., Ursúa, J. F., & Weng, J. (2020). The Coronavirus and the Great Influenza Pandemic: Lessons from the "Spanish Flu" for the Coronavirus`s Potential Effects on Mortality and Economic Activity. National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 26866. https://doi.org/10.3386/w26866
Betsch, C., Böhm, R., Korn, L., & Holtmann, C. (2017). On the Benefits of Explaining Herd Immunity in Vaccine Advocacy. Nature Human Behaviour, 1, 0056. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0056
Castle, C., Guilmi, C. D., & Stavrunova, O. (2021). Individualism and Collectivism as Predictors of Compliance with COVID-19 Public Health Safety Expectations. Economics Discipline Group, UTS Business School, University of Technology, Working Paper Series, 2021/03. https://ideas.repec.org/p/uts/ecowps/2021-03.html
Chang, H.J(J)., Min, S., Woo, H., & Yurchisin, J. (2021) Mask-Wearing Behavior During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Between the United States and South Korea. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 50(1), 5-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12416
Chen, S. X., Lam, B. C. P., Liu, J. H., Choi, H. S., Kashima, E., & Bernardo, A. B. I. (2021) Effects of Containment and Closure Policies on Controlling the COVID-19 Pandemic in East Asia. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 24(1), 42-47. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12459
Cheng, V. C. -C., Wong, S. -C., Chuang, V. W. -M., So, S. Y. -C., Chen, J. H. -K., Sridhar, S., …, & Yuen, K. -Y. (2020). The Role of Community-Wide Wearing of Face Mask for Control of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Epidemic Due to SARS-CoV-2. Journal of Infection, 81(1), 107-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.04.024
Chua, L. J., & Engel, D. M. (2019). Legal Consciousness Reconsidered. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 15, 335-353. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042717
Chung, J. -B., Kim, B. -J., & Kim, E. -S. (2021). Mask Wearing Behavior and COVID-19: Synthetic Effects of Individualism and Collectivism in Korea. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-777573/v1
Haischer, M. H., Beilfuss, R., Hart, M. R., Opielinski, L., Wrucke, D., Zirgaitis, G., Uhrich, T. D., & Hunter, S. K. (2020). Who Is Wearing a Mask? Gender-, Age-, and Location-Related Differences During the COVID-19 Pandemic. PLoS ONE 15(10): e0240785. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240785
Hearne, B. N., & Niño, M. D. (2021). Understanding How Race, Ethnicity, and Gender Shape Mask-Wearing Adherence During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from the COVID Impact Survey. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 9, 176-183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00941-1
Im, H., Wang, P., & Chen, C. (2021). The Partisan Mask: Political Orientation, Collectivism, and Religiosity Predict Mask Use During COVID-19. University of California Irvine. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/9s58f
Howard, M. C. (2021). Gender, Face Mask Perceptions, and Face Mask Wearing: Are Men Being Dangerous During the COVID-19 Pandemic? Personality and Individual Differences, 170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110417
Huang, F., Ding, H., Liu, Z., Wu, P., Zhu, M., Li, A., & Zhu, T. (2020). How Fear and Collectivism Influence Public`s Preventive Intention Towards COVID-19 Infection: A Study Based on Big Data from The Social Media. BMC Public Health, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09674-6
Huang, L., Li, O. Z.,Wang, B., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Individualism and the Fight Against COVID-19. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9:120. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01124-5
Jacobs, P., & Ohinmaa, A. P. (2020). The Enforcement of Statewide Mask Wearing Mandates to Prevent COVID-19 in the US: An Overview. F1000Research 2020, 9:1100. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.25907.1
Kahane, L. H. (2021). Politicizing the Mask: Political, Economic and Demographic Factors Affecting Mask Wearing Behavior in the USA. Eastern Economic Journal, 47, 163-183. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41302-020-00186-0
Kasdan, D. O., & Campbell, J. W. (2020). Dataveillant Collectivism and the Coronavirus in Korea: Values, Biases, and Socio-Cultural Foundations of Containment Efforts. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 42(4), 604-613.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2020.1805272
Kitayama, S. (2020, September 30). Psychological Science in the Era of Infectious Disease. Observer, 33(8).
https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/era-of-infectious-disease
Liu, J. H. -F., Leong, C. -H., Huang, S. -Y., Chen, S. X., Choi, H. -S., Yamaguchi, S., Lee, I. -C., & Inoue, Y. (2020). Pandemic Response: Vigilance, Civic Responsibility Critical to East Asia`s Success. East Asia Forum Quarterly, 12(2), 29-31. https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.282941687182219
Liu, J. H. (2021). Majority World Successes and European and American Failure to Contain COVID-19: Cultural Collectivism and Global Leadership. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 24(1), 23-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12461
Lu, J. G., Jin, P., & English, A. S. (2021). Collectivism Predicts Mask Use During COVID-19. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 118 (23). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021793118
McCarty, J. A., & Shrum, L. J. (2001). The Influence of Individualism, Collectivism, and Locus of Control on Environmental Beliefs and Behavior. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1509/jppm.20.1.93.17291
Parmet W. E. (2018). Quarantining the Law of Quarantine: Why Quarantine Law Does Not Reflect Contemporary Constitutional Law. Wake Forest Journal of Law & Policy, 9(1), 1-33. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3341375
Parmet, W. E., & Sinha, M. S. (2020). COVID-19–The Law and Limits of Quarantine. The New England Journal of Medicine, 382(15). https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2004211
Plohl, N., & Musil, B. (2020). Modeling Compliance With COVID-19 Prevention Guidelines: The Critical Role of Trust in Science. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 26(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2020.1772988
Raymond, J. R. (2020). The Great Mask Debate: A Debate That Shouldn`t Be a Debate at All. Wisconsin Medical Journal(WMJ), 119(4), 229-239. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33428832/
Rudolph, J., Rong, C. S., & Tan, S. (2021). Anti-Facemaskism—Politicisation of Face Masks During COVID-19 in the Context of Trump`s Plutocratic Populism. Journal of Education, Innovation, and Communication, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.34097/jeicom-3-1-june21-3
Taylor, S., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2021). Negative Attitudes About Facemasks During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Dual Importance of Perceived Ineffectiveness and Psychological Reactance. PLoS ONE 16(2): e0246317. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246317
Vandello, J. A., & Cohen, D. (1999). Patterns of Individualism and Collectivism Across the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(2), 279-292. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.279
Wang, C., Chudzicka-Czupała, A., Grabowski, D., Pan, R., Adamus, K., Wan, X. …, & Ho, C. (2020). The Association Between Physical and Mental Health and Face Mask Use During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of Two Countries With Different Views and Practices. Front. Psychiatry 11:569981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.569981
Wang, H. -T. (2019). Justice, Emotion, and Belonging: Legal Consciousness in a Taiwanese Family Conflict. Law & Society Reviews, 53(3), 764-790. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12422
Wang, H. -T. (2022). Being One of Us: The Role of Mutual Recognition and Emotion in Shaping Legal Consciousness in a Taiwanese Neighbourhood Dispute. Asian Journal of Law and Society, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1017/als.2022.6
Webster, G. D., L.Howell, J., Losee, J. E., Mahar, E. A., & Wongsomboon, V. (2021). Culture, COVID-19, and Collectivism: A Paradox of American Exceptionalism? Personality and Individual Differences, 178:110853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110853
Young, K. M. (2014). Everyone Knows the Game: Legal Consciousness in the Hawaiian Cockfight. Law & Society Review, 48(3), 499-530. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12094
Zhao, X., & Knobel, P. (2021). Face Mask Wearing During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Comparing Perceptions in China and Three European Countries. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 11(6), 1199-1204. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibab043
Zhou, M., Long, P., Kong, N., & Campy, K. S. (2020). Characterizing Wuhan Residents` Mask-Wearing Intention at Early Stages of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Patient Education and Counseling, 104(8), 1868-1877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2020.12.020

（三）網路資料
American Civil Liberties Union. (2015). Fear, Politics and Ebola: How Quarantines Hurt the Fight Against Ebola and Violate the Constitution. Yale Health Global Justice Partnership. Retrieved from https://www.aclu.org/issues/privacy-technology/medical-and-genetic-privacy/fear-politics-and-ebola (May 15, 2022)
Andrew, S. (2020, May 6). The Psychology Behind Why Some People Won`t Wear Masks. CNN. Retrieved from
https://www.ksat.com/news/2020/05/06/the-psychology-behind-why-some-people-wont-wear-masks/
BBC News (2020, August 1). Coronavirus: Thousands Protest in Germany Against Restrictions. BBC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53622797
Bélanger, J. (2020, December 9). What Motivates COVID Rule Breakers? Scientific American. Retrieved from
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-motivates-covid-rule-breakers/
Brown, L. (2021, August 30). Texas "Freedom Defender" Who Rallied Against COVID-19 Measures Dies. New York Post. Retrieved from https://nypost.com/2021/08/30/texas-man-who-rallied-against-covid-19-measures-dies/
Coaston, J., & Rupar, A. (2020, April 16). Thousands of Michiganders Took to the Streets to Protest the Governor`s Stay-at-Home Order. VOX. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/2020/4/16/21222471/michigan-protests-coronavirus-stay-at-home-extension
French, P. (2020, April 5). In the 1918 Flu Pandemic, Not Wearing a Mask Was Illegal in Some Parts of America. What Changed? CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/03/americas/flu-america-1918-masks-intl-hnk/index.html
Gearan, A., & Wagner, J (2020, May 1). Trump Expresses Support for Angry Anti-Shutdown Protesters as More States Lift Coronavirus Lockdowns. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-expresses-support-for-angry-anti-shutdown-protesters-as-more-states-lift-coronavirus-lockdowns/2020/05/01/25570dbe-8b9f-11ea-8ac1-bfb250876b7a_story.html
Giuliani-Hoffman, F. (2020, August 16). Face Masks: in 2020, "Mask Slacking" Is More Partisan Than in 1918, Historians Say. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/16/us/face-mask-partisan-issue-2020-1918-trnd/index.html
Griffiths, J. (2020, April 5). Taiwan`s Coronavirus Response Is Among the Best Globally. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/04/asia/taiwan-coronavirus-response-who-intl-hnk/index.html
Hauser, C. (2020, August 3) The Mask Slackers of 1918: As the Influenza Pandemic Swept Across the United States in 1918 and 1919, Masks Took a Role in Political and Cultural Wars. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/03/us/mask-protests-1918.html
Hiestand, E., & O`Neill, K. (2020, August 19). 3 Questions: Historian Emma Teng on Face Masks as 公德心. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved from https://news.mit.edu/2020/meanings-face-masks-emma-teng-0819
History.com (Eds.). (2020, July 24). Why Was There a Backlash Against Face Masks During the Spanish Flu Pandemic of 1918? HISTORY. Retrieved from https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/wear-face-masks-backlash-opposition-why-spanish-flu-coronavirus-covid-history/
History.com (Eds.). (2020, May 19). Spanish Flu. HISTORY. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/1918-flu-pandemic#section_10
Howard, J., & Hassan, C. (2020, August 26). Covid-19 Superspreading Event in Boston May Have Led to 20,000 Cases, Researcher Says. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/25/health/covid-19-superspreading-boston-study/index.html
Kimball, S. (2022, April 18). TSA Will Not Enforce Covid Mask Mandate on Planes, Public Transit After Court Ruling, White House Says. CNBC. Retrieved from https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/18/florida-judge-overturns-cdc-mask-mandate-for-public-transit-planes.html
Kulkarni, S. S. (2021, August 27). Texas Anti-Mask Organizer Clings to Life in a Battle With Covid-19. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/27/world/texas-anti-mask-organizer-clings-to-life-in-a-battle-with-covid-19.html
Lo, H. -Y. (2020, July 21). Why We Shouldn`t See Face Masks As an "Asian Thing". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/national/why-we-shouldn-t-see-face-masks-as-an-asian-thing-20200716-p55csm.html
Loud, N. (2020, July 15). The Anti-Mask League of 1919: The Cultural Battle of an Enduring Pandemic. Untapped New York. Retrieved from https://untappedcities.com/2020/07/15/the-anti-mask-league-of-1919-the-cultural-battle-of-an-enduring-pandemic/
Marcus, J. (2020, June 23). The Dudes Who Won`t Wear Masks. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/06/dudes-who-wont-wear-masks/613375/
Martin, N. (2020, May 1). The Role of Digital Tools in Taiwan`s Response to COVID-19. Forum Privatheit Blog. Retrieved from https://forum-privatheit.de/blog/the-role-of-digital-tools-in-taiwans-response-to-covid-19/
Philipose, R. (2020, September 6). COVID-19: A Look at Anti-Mask Rallies Held Around the World Amid the Pandemic. The Indian Express. Retrieved from https://indianexpress.com/article/world/covid-19-a-look-at-anti-mask-rallies-held-around-the-world-amid-the-pandemic-6585722/
Phillips, J., Yoo, J. (2020, July 26). The constitutionality of federal mask mandates. The Orange County Register.
Retrieved from https://www.ocregister.com/2020/07/26/the-constitutionality-of-federal-mask-mandates/
Price, P. J. (2020, March 19). How a Fragmented Country Fights a Pandemic. The Atlantic. Retrieved from
https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/03/how-fragmented-country-fights-pandemic/608284/
Salvanto, A., Pinto, J. D., Khanna, K., Backus, F., & Cox, E. (2020, June 28.) Record Number of Americans Aay Fight Against Coronavirus Going Badly –CBS News poll. CBS News. Retrieved from https://www.klfy.com/coronavirus/record-number-of-americans-say-fight-against-coronavirus-going-badly-cbs-news-poll/
Santiago, L., Weisfeldt, S. (2021, May 13). Here`s How Two Mothers in the Same County Have Totally Different Views on Masks in Schools. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2021/05/13/us/florida-school-mask-mandates-wellness/index.html
Stewart, E. (2020, August 7). Anti-Maskers Explain Themselves. VOX. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2020/8/7/21357400/anti-mask-protest-rallies-donald-trump-covid-19
Trent, S. (2020, May 6). Coronavirus Mask Confrontations Echo San Francisco`s Anti-Mask League a Century ago. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/05/06/mask-protests-flu-san-francisco-coronavirus/
Tufts, J. (2021, August 22). "He loved his family": Caleb Wallace Dies After Battle With COVID-19, Pregnant Wife Says. Go San Angelo. Retrieved from https://www.gosanangelo.com/story/news/2021/08/22/texas-covid-delta-variant-hospitalizations-high-mom-fights-save-husband/8196516002/
Vargas, E. D., & Sanchez, G. R. (2020, August 31). American Individualism Is an Obstacle to Wider Mask Wearing in the US. Brookings. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/08/31/american-individualism-is-an-obstacle-to-wider-mask-wearing-in-the-us/
Vogue, A. D. (2020, November 26). In a 5-4 Ruling, Supreme Court Sides With Religious Groups in a Dispute Over COVID-19 Restrictions in New York. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/11/26/politics/supreme-court-religious-restrictions-ruling-covid/index.html
Wagner, B. (2021, December 21). Fact Check: During Spanish Flu Epidemic, Refusal to Wear a Mask Led to Jail Time For Some. USA TODAY. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2021/12/17/fact-check-during-spanish-flu-mask-slackers-faced-jail-time/8929102002/
Welk, B. (2021, January 4). Anti-Mask Protesters Storm Century City Mall in Los Angeles. The Wrap. Retrieved from
https://www.thewrap.com/century-city-mall-anti-mask-protest-ralphs-grocery-store/
Wilson, J. (2020, April 17). The Rightwing Groups Behind Wave of Protests Against COVID-19 Restrictions. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/17/far-right-coronavirus-protests-restrictions
Wilson, J. (2020, April 17). The Rightwing Groups Behind Wave of Protests Against COVID-19 Restrictions. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/17/far-right-coronavirus-protests-restrictions
Wong, B. (2020, September 21). Why East Asians Were Wearing Masks Long Before COVID-19. Huffpost. Retrieved from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/east-asian-countries-face-masks-before-covid_l_5f63a43fc5b61845586837f4
Yan, H. (2021, May 20). The Texas Governor Is Banning Public Schools From Requiring Masks. Here`s What Parents Think. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2021/05/20/us/texas-face-masks-public-schools/index.html
Yermal JR., B. (2020, July 1). The Mask Debate Isn`t Just About Saving Face. Adults Who Wear Them and Those Who Don`t Explain Why. Morning Consult. Morning Consult. Retrieved from https://morningconsult.com/2020/07/01/the-mask-debate-isnt-just-about-saving-face-adults-who-wear-them-and-those-who-dont-explain-why/
Yong, E. (2020, August 4). How the Pandemic Defeated America. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/09/coronavirus-american-failure/614191/
Zhou, M., Yu, Y., & Fang, A. (2020, March 14). Asians in the US Torn Between Safety and Stigma Over Face Masks. NIKKEI ASIA. Retrieved from https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Coronavirus/Asians-in-US-torn-between-safety-and-stigma-over-face-masks
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
法律科際整合研究所
108652027
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0108652027
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 王曉丹zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Wang, Hsiao-Tanen_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 黃翊zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Huang, Yien_US
dc.creator (作者) 黃翊zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Huang, Yien_US
dc.date (日期) 2022en_US
dc.date.accessioned 5-Oct-2022 09:24:42 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 5-Oct-2022 09:24:42 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 5-Oct-2022 09:24:42 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0108652027en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/142164-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 法律科際整合研究所zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 108652027zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 2020年COVID-19疫情席捲全球，各國政府相繼制定相關防疫措施，其中強制人民在公共場所戴口罩被視為是一種有效抑制病毒傳播的手段，然而口罩強制規定在各國文化下卻有著截然不同的迴響。身處於東亞文化圈的我們多數採取順從的姿態，不過在其他疫情更加嚴重的歐美地區，卻相繼出現了反對口罩規定的聲浪。
究竟人們為什麼戴口罩？Lu等（2021）的研究中指出，一地區的戴口罩比例和集體－個人主義文化指數有很大的關聯性，說明了集體和個人主義文化傾向將會影響到人們遵守口罩規定的意願。但由於目前大部分的疫情研究都是透過問卷所進行的量化分析，無法呈現出疫情下個體和集體的互動過程，亦無法解釋該互動又如何影響個人戴口罩的行為。為了深入理解此一社會過程，本研究以1918年西班牙流感疫情下的美國、2020年COVID-19疫情下的臺灣與美國——三個不同時空背景的案例作為核心，進行臺美疫情下的「法意識」比較研究。
所謂「法意識」即人們經驗、理解或實踐法律的方式，該領域研究強調個人與其他集體的互動關係對其自我認同與法意識的影響力（Chua & Engel，2019）。本研究透過比較不同時空案例中個體與集體的互動方式，呈現出疫情下法意識的形塑過程，並發現在個人和集體主義文化的圖像下，集體意識對個體法意識之發展有重大影響，其中「政治」、「社會危機感」，及「特殊的歷史脈絡」更是影響個體戴口罩行為的強力因素。
此外，由於東西方文化在不同的歷史脈絡下，個人與集體的互動方式有不同的運作邏輯，本文因此透過費孝通（1948）團體格局與差序格局的理論解釋其中的差異性，以作為臺美疫情下法意識圖像的論述補充。
最後，本研究透過歷史比較分析，體現出個體性在法意識研究中的重要性。無論是在集體或個人主義文化之下，或是身處團體格局或差序格局的邏輯之中，人們是否遵守強制規定，皆和其個體性有很大的關聯性。本文主張，在特定時空歷史下持續被建構出來的習性，以及依此所形塑出來的個人和集體互動的文化模式，這些個體性乃是形塑人們法意識的核心關鍵。		zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) Since 2020, COVID-19 has claimed the globe. Governments enact various prevention policies, among which forcing people to wear a mask in public places is considered an effective way of slowing virus transmission. However, reactions to coercive mask-wearing vary in different countries and cultures. Most East-Asian cultures abide by these regulations, while disapproval or objections emerge in Euro-American region, where the pandemic seriously strikes.
Why do people wear masks? Lu et al. (2021) point out the strong correlation between collectivism–individualism index and the percentage of people wearing a mask. This suggests that the tendency of collectivistic and individualistic cultures will affect if people wear a mask. Unfortunately, most studies on the pandemic are based on quantitative surveys, which neither help to represent the interaction between the individual and the collective, nor understand how the interaction influences the individual’s decision on mask-wearing. In order to comprehend this social process, this study targets the U.S. under the 1918 Spanish Flu, and the U.S. and Taiwan under 2020 COVID-19 as three cases of different spatial-temporal setting so as to conduct a comparative study on legal consciousness of Taiwan and the U.S.
The so-called “legal consciousness” is the way people experience, understand, or practice laws. The research field emphasizes the influence of the interaction between the individual and the collective on personal identity and legal consciousness (Chua & Engel 2019). This study compares the interaction between the individual and the collective in the three cases, shows the formation of legal consciousness under the pandemic, and discovers that, in collectivistic and individualistic cultures, collective consciousness has great influence on the development of individual’s legal consciousness, in which “politics”, “social awareness of crisis” and specific historical context” are deciding factors in wearing a mask.
Moreover, due to different historical context of Eastern and Western cultures, the logic of the interaction between the individual and the collective varies. The study thus explains the difference between “organizational mode of association” and “differential mode of association” (Fei 1948) as complement to the legal consciousness of Taiwan and the U.S. under the pandemic.
Lastly, through comparative historical analysis, the study demonstrates the importance of individuality in the study of legal consciousness. Both in collectivistic and individualistic cultures, and in organizational mode of association and differential mode of association, whether or not people follow coercive actions correlates to their individuality. This study therefore argues that, habitus constructed in specific historical context, and cultural patterns of interaction between individuals and the collective formed by which, are individuality that is central to the formation of people’s legal consciousness.		en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents 第一章、緒論 1
第一節、研究緣起 1
第二節、研究背景 2
第三節、問題意識 5
第四節、研究方法及限制 7
一、研究方法 7
二、研究限制 8
第五節、章節安排 9
第二章 文獻回顧 12
第一節、疫情下口罩研究的法社會學 12
一、性別、種族等變因的認知差異 12
二、個人自由權的討論 14
三、東西方文化比較 17
第二節、個人主義與集體主義的影響 19
一、個人主義與集體主義的文化觀 19
二、疫情下的「個人主義－集體主義」研究 21
第三節、自我認同與法意識 25
一、法的正當性 26
二、關係法意識 27
三、文化宇宙觀 28
第四節、差序格局與團體格局 29
第三章 美國：COVID-19疫情下的自由權實踐 31
第一節、COVID-19疫情與反口罩運動 31
一、疫情下美國各州法規沿革 31
二、反口罩運動在美國的發展 33
第二節、疫情下美國的個人主義文化 34
第三節、疫情下美國人的法意識 38
第四章 美國：西班牙流感與戰時文化的集體性 40
第一節、西班牙流感的歷史 41
一、西班牙流感疫情背景 41
二、西班牙流感在美國的發展 42
第二節、戰時美國的政治集體與疫情 45
第三節、政治對法意識的影響 47
第五章 臺灣：過去的疫情經驗與集體中的自我 50
第一節、臺灣的防疫歷史 51
一、從SARS到COVID-19的防疫史 51
二、疫情下的口罩強制政策與法規沿革 53
第二節、社會危機意識對法意識的影響 55
第三節、集體主義文化中的不同面向 56
第六章 結論 59
參考文獻 62
一、中文文獻 62
二、英文文獻 65		zh_TW
dc.format.extent 1383644 bytes-
dc.format.mimetype application/pdf-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0108652027en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 法意識zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 個體性zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 個人主義zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 集體主義zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) COVID-19zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 口罩zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Legal consciousnessen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Individualityen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Individualismen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Collectivismen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) COVID-19en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Masken_US
dc.title (題名) 為什麼戴口罩？ ——個體性與臺美疫情下的法意識比較zh_TW
dc.title (題名) Why Wear a Mask? - Individuality and a Comparison of Legal Consciousness in Taiwan and USA During the Pandemicen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen_US
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 一、中文文獻
（ㄧ）專書
Brown, J.（2020）。百年抗疫 : 1918後被流感改變的世界（王晨瑜譯）。臺北：今周刊出版。（原著出版於2018年）
Kolata, G.（2020）。流行性感冒：1918流感全球大流行及致命病毒之發現（黃約翰譯）。臺北：商周出版。（原著出版於1999年）
Spinney, L.（2021）。世紀大瘟疫後的變與不變：西班牙流感的歷史借鏡（陳芳智、陳志金譯）。臺北：原水文化。（原著出版於2018年）
Triandis, H.C.（2016）。個人主義與集體主義（周宛青譯）。臺北：好優文化。（原著出版於1995年）
王梅玲（2005）。英美與亞太地區圖書資訊學教育。臺北市：文華。
費孝通（1948）。鄉土中國（2017版）。香港：香港中和出版。
衛生福利疾病管制署（2013）。防疫風雲系列001——SARS10年 生聚與教訓。臺北：衛生福利疾病管制署出版。

（二）期刊論文
王曉丹（2018）。法意識探索：關係自我的情感衡平。政治與社會哲學評論，67，103-159。
王曉丹（2022）。法意識：作為文化實踐的法律。政大法學評論特刊（已通過審查）。
吳易珉（2021）。我國因應新冠肺炎法制之分析－以口罩規制為中心〔未出版之碩士論文〕。國立清華大學科技法律研究所。
李庭芝（2020）。走過SARS──台灣防疫的浴火重生。人本教育札記，370，23-27。
林工凱、謝碧珠（2020）。嚴重特殊傳染性肺炎疫情下應變處置措施之探討。臺灣醫界，63（8），49-58。
侯新民、何樹勛（2010）中國文化集體主義／個人主義緯度的再分析。Sino-US English Teaching, 7(5), 33-38。
柯雨瑞、蔡政杰、張育芝、孟顯珍（2020）。試論我國防治新型冠狀病毒（COVID－19）之現況、面臨困境與可行之回應對策。危機管理學刊，17（2），73-90。
柯雨瑞、鐘太宏、黃翠紋（2020）。因應新型冠狀肺炎（COVID-19）疫情影響下之法律應變體系規劃及執法作為之問題與對策。危機管理學刊，18(2)，49-62。
曾金花、張彥敏（2012）。1918-1919大流感傳播的原因及其影響。首都師範大學學報：社會科學版，1，19-23。
詹祐維（2020）。傳染病防治法強制隔離措施之檢討－以釋字690號解釋為中心。萬國法律，231，13-23。
齊力（2003）。個人主義、集體主義與家族主義：三角關係的概念格局。市師設教學報，2，115-145。
魏然、李若筠（2021）。為人為己：新聞關注和文化取向如何影響美國民眾對新冠病毒的認知與防疫行為。傳播與社會學刊，58，203-253。

（三）網路資料
中華民國總統府（2020年2月27日）。副總統接受《日本產業經濟新聞社》專訪。中華民國總統府。檢自：https://www.president.gov.tw/NEWS/25241
王梅玲（2012）。比較研究。圖書館學與資訊科學大辭典。檢自：https://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/1679273/ （2022年5月18日）
王雪俐（2020年5月10日）。德國研究分析：為何臺灣防疫經驗不易複製。報呱。檢自：https://www.pourquoi.tw/2020/05/10/intlnews-euaf-200504-200510-1/
但昭偉（2000）個性。教育大辭書。檢自：http://terms.naer.edu.tw/detail/1308024/（2022年6月6日）
李定宇（2022年2月18日）。不戴口罩、居隔外出 新北半年開罰780件、541萬元。聯合新聞網。檢自：https://udn.com/news/story/120940/6105857
李樹人（2021年1月19日）。回首SARS／如果早一點處理和平醫院 張上淳：當年或許能避免院內感染。元氣網。檢自：https://health.udn.com/health/story/6001/4312063
洪彩綸（2021年7月18日）。3級防疫違規！台中開罰千萬元 未戴口罩最多。TVBS新聞網。檢自：https://news.tvbs.com.tw/life/1547916
風傳媒（2020年8月2日）。就是不願戴口罩》數萬德國人上街頭抗議防疫措施：「口罩讓我們成為奴隸！」。風傳媒。檢自：https://www.storm.mg/article/2907451
張子午（2020年3月13日）。重返和平──SARS隔離黑洞中難以告別的記憶。報導者。檢自：https://www.twreporter.org/a/sars-memories-life-under-quarantine-in-heping-hospital
費爾南多•杜阿特（Fernando Duarte）（2020年4月30日）。後疫情時代：1918年西班牙流感大流行如何改變了世界。BBC中文。檢自：https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/trad/world-52467463
臺南市政府（2020年8月14日）。為防範新冠肺炎社區傳播，8月17日起民眾至台南市八類場所需配帶口罩。臺南市政府。檢自：https://www.tainan.gov.tw/News_Content.aspx?n=13371&s=7703066

二、英文文獻
（一）專書
Bereday, G. Z. F.(1964). Comparative Method in Education. New York: Holt Rinehart and Winston.
Engel, D. M., & Engel, J. S. (2010). Tort, Custom, and Karma - Globalization and Legal Consciousness in Thailand. California‎: Stanford University Press.
Engel, D. M., & Munger, F.(2003). Rights of Inclusion: Law and Identity in the Life Stories of Americans With Disabilities. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture`s Consequences: International Differences in Work-Related Values. Newbury Park, California: SAGE.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture`s Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviors, Institutions, and Organizations Across Nations, Second Edition. Newbury Park, California: SAGE.
Hofstede, G., Hofstede, G. J., & Minkov, M. (1991). Cultures and Organizations: Software of the Mind. United Kingdom, London: McGraw-Hill.
Honigsbaum, M. (2013). A History Of The Great Influenza Pandemics: Death, Panic And Hysteria, 1830-1920. London: I.B.Tauris.

（二）期刊論文
Abrego, L. J. (2019). Relational Legal Consciousness of U.S. Citizenship: Privilege, Responsibility, Guilt, and Love in Latino Mixed-Status Families. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 53(3), 641-670. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12414
Barceló, J., & Sheen, G. C.-H. (2021). Voluntary Adoption of Social Welfare-Enhancing Behavior: Mask-Wearing in Spain During the COVID-19 Outbreak. PLoS ONE 15(12): e0242764. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0242764
Barro, R. J., Ursúa, J. F., & Weng, J. (2020). The Coronavirus and the Great Influenza Pandemic: Lessons from the "Spanish Flu" for the Coronavirus`s Potential Effects on Mortality and Economic Activity. National Bureau of Economic Research, Working Paper 26866. https://doi.org/10.3386/w26866
Betsch, C., Böhm, R., Korn, L., & Holtmann, C. (2017). On the Benefits of Explaining Herd Immunity in Vaccine Advocacy. Nature Human Behaviour, 1, 0056. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-017-0056
Castle, C., Guilmi, C. D., & Stavrunova, O. (2021). Individualism and Collectivism as Predictors of Compliance with COVID-19 Public Health Safety Expectations. Economics Discipline Group, UTS Business School, University of Technology, Working Paper Series, 2021/03. https://ideas.repec.org/p/uts/ecowps/2021-03.html
Chang, H.J(J)., Min, S., Woo, H., & Yurchisin, J. (2021) Mask-Wearing Behavior During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Cross-Cultural Comparison Between the United States and South Korea. Family and Consumer Sciences Research Journal, 50(1), 5-26. https://doi.org/10.1111/fcsr.12416
Chen, S. X., Lam, B. C. P., Liu, J. H., Choi, H. S., Kashima, E., & Bernardo, A. B. I. (2021) Effects of Containment and Closure Policies on Controlling the COVID-19 Pandemic in East Asia. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 24(1), 42-47. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12459
Cheng, V. C. -C., Wong, S. -C., Chuang, V. W. -M., So, S. Y. -C., Chen, J. H. -K., Sridhar, S., …, & Yuen, K. -Y. (2020). The Role of Community-Wide Wearing of Face Mask for Control of Coronavirus Disease 2019 (COVID-19) Epidemic Due to SARS-CoV-2. Journal of Infection, 81(1), 107-114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jinf.2020.04.024
Chua, L. J., & Engel, D. M. (2019). Legal Consciousness Reconsidered. Annual Review of Law and Social Science, 15, 335-353. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-lawsocsci-101518-042717
Chung, J. -B., Kim, B. -J., & Kim, E. -S. (2021). Mask Wearing Behavior and COVID-19: Synthetic Effects of Individualism and Collectivism in Korea. Scientific Reports. https://doi.org/10.21203/rs.3.rs-777573/v1
Haischer, M. H., Beilfuss, R., Hart, M. R., Opielinski, L., Wrucke, D., Zirgaitis, G., Uhrich, T. D., & Hunter, S. K. (2020). Who Is Wearing a Mask? Gender-, Age-, and Location-Related Differences During the COVID-19 Pandemic. PLoS ONE 15(10): e0240785. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0240785
Hearne, B. N., & Niño, M. D. (2021). Understanding How Race, Ethnicity, and Gender Shape Mask-Wearing Adherence During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Evidence from the COVID Impact Survey. Journal of Racial and Ethnic Health Disparities, 9, 176-183. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40615-020-00941-1
Im, H., Wang, P., & Chen, C. (2021). The Partisan Mask: Political Orientation, Collectivism, and Religiosity Predict Mask Use During COVID-19. University of California Irvine. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/9s58f
Howard, M. C. (2021). Gender, Face Mask Perceptions, and Face Mask Wearing: Are Men Being Dangerous During the COVID-19 Pandemic? Personality and Individual Differences, 170. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2020.110417
Huang, F., Ding, H., Liu, Z., Wu, P., Zhu, M., Li, A., & Zhu, T. (2020). How Fear and Collectivism Influence Public`s Preventive Intention Towards COVID-19 Infection: A Study Based on Big Data from The Social Media. BMC Public Health, 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-020-09674-6
Huang, L., Li, O. Z.,Wang, B., & Zhang, Z. (2022). Individualism and the Fight Against COVID-19. Humanities and Social Sciences Communications, 9:120. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41599-022-01124-5
Jacobs, P., & Ohinmaa, A. P. (2020). The Enforcement of Statewide Mask Wearing Mandates to Prevent COVID-19 in the US: An Overview. F1000Research 2020, 9:1100. https://doi.org/10.12688/f1000research.25907.1
Kahane, L. H. (2021). Politicizing the Mask: Political, Economic and Demographic Factors Affecting Mask Wearing Behavior in the USA. Eastern Economic Journal, 47, 163-183. https://doi.org/10.1057/s41302-020-00186-0
Kasdan, D. O., & Campbell, J. W. (2020). Dataveillant Collectivism and the Coronavirus in Korea: Values, Biases, and Socio-Cultural Foundations of Containment Efforts. Administrative Theory & Praxis, 42(4), 604-613.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10841806.2020.1805272
Kitayama, S. (2020, September 30). Psychological Science in the Era of Infectious Disease. Observer, 33(8).
https://www.psychologicalscience.org/observer/era-of-infectious-disease
Liu, J. H. -F., Leong, C. -H., Huang, S. -Y., Chen, S. X., Choi, H. -S., Yamaguchi, S., Lee, I. -C., & Inoue, Y. (2020). Pandemic Response: Vigilance, Civic Responsibility Critical to East Asia`s Success. East Asia Forum Quarterly, 12(2), 29-31. https://search.informit.org/doi/pdf/10.3316/informit.282941687182219
Liu, J. H. (2021). Majority World Successes and European and American Failure to Contain COVID-19: Cultural Collectivism and Global Leadership. Asian Journal of Social Psychology, 24(1), 23-29. https://doi.org/10.1111/ajsp.12461
Lu, J. G., Jin, P., & English, A. S. (2021). Collectivism Predicts Mask Use During COVID-19. The Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 118 (23). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2021793118
McCarty, J. A., & Shrum, L. J. (2001). The Influence of Individualism, Collectivism, and Locus of Control on Environmental Beliefs and Behavior. Journal of Public Policy & Marketing, 20(1). https://doi.org/10.1509/jppm.20.1.93.17291
Parmet W. E. (2018). Quarantining the Law of Quarantine: Why Quarantine Law Does Not Reflect Contemporary Constitutional Law. Wake Forest Journal of Law & Policy, 9(1), 1-33. https://ssrn.com/abstract=3341375
Parmet, W. E., & Sinha, M. S. (2020). COVID-19–The Law and Limits of Quarantine. The New England Journal of Medicine, 382(15). https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMp2004211
Plohl, N., & Musil, B. (2020). Modeling Compliance With COVID-19 Prevention Guidelines: The Critical Role of Trust in Science. Psychology, Health & Medicine, 26(1), 1-12. https://doi.org/10.1080/13548506.2020.1772988
Raymond, J. R. (2020). The Great Mask Debate: A Debate That Shouldn`t Be a Debate at All. Wisconsin Medical Journal(WMJ), 119(4), 229-239. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33428832/
Rudolph, J., Rong, C. S., & Tan, S. (2021). Anti-Facemaskism—Politicisation of Face Masks During COVID-19 in the Context of Trump`s Plutocratic Populism. Journal of Education, Innovation, and Communication, 3(1). https://doi.org/10.34097/jeicom-3-1-june21-3
Taylor, S., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2021). Negative Attitudes About Facemasks During the COVID-19 Pandemic: The Dual Importance of Perceived Ineffectiveness and Psychological Reactance. PLoS ONE 16(2): e0246317. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0246317
Vandello, J. A., & Cohen, D. (1999). Patterns of Individualism and Collectivism Across the United States. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(2), 279-292. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.77.2.279
Wang, C., Chudzicka-Czupała, A., Grabowski, D., Pan, R., Adamus, K., Wan, X. …, & Ho, C. (2020). The Association Between Physical and Mental Health and Face Mask Use During the COVID-19 Pandemic: A Comparison of Two Countries With Different Views and Practices. Front. Psychiatry 11:569981. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyt.2020.569981
Wang, H. -T. (2019). Justice, Emotion, and Belonging: Legal Consciousness in a Taiwanese Family Conflict. Law & Society Reviews, 53(3), 764-790. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12422
Wang, H. -T. (2022). Being One of Us: The Role of Mutual Recognition and Emotion in Shaping Legal Consciousness in a Taiwanese Neighbourhood Dispute. Asian Journal of Law and Society, 1-16. https://doi.org/10.1017/als.2022.6
Webster, G. D., L.Howell, J., Losee, J. E., Mahar, E. A., & Wongsomboon, V. (2021). Culture, COVID-19, and Collectivism: A Paradox of American Exceptionalism? Personality and Individual Differences, 178:110853. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2021.110853
Young, K. M. (2014). Everyone Knows the Game: Legal Consciousness in the Hawaiian Cockfight. Law & Society Review, 48(3), 499-530. https://doi.org/10.1111/lasr.12094
Zhao, X., & Knobel, P. (2021). Face Mask Wearing During the COVID-19 Pandemic: Comparing Perceptions in China and Three European Countries. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 11(6), 1199-1204. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibab043
Zhou, M., Long, P., Kong, N., & Campy, K. S. (2020). Characterizing Wuhan Residents` Mask-Wearing Intention at Early Stages of the COVID-19 Pandemic. Patient Education and Counseling, 104(8), 1868-1877. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pec.2020.12.020

（三）網路資料
American Civil Liberties Union. (2015). Fear, Politics and Ebola: How Quarantines Hurt the Fight Against Ebola and Violate the Constitution. Yale Health Global Justice Partnership. Retrieved from https://www.aclu.org/issues/privacy-technology/medical-and-genetic-privacy/fear-politics-and-ebola (May 15, 2022)
Andrew, S. (2020, May 6). The Psychology Behind Why Some People Won`t Wear Masks. CNN. Retrieved from
https://www.ksat.com/news/2020/05/06/the-psychology-behind-why-some-people-wont-wear-masks/
BBC News (2020, August 1). Coronavirus: Thousands Protest in Germany Against Restrictions. BBC News. Retrieved from https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-53622797
Bélanger, J. (2020, December 9). What Motivates COVID Rule Breakers? Scientific American. Retrieved from
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/what-motivates-covid-rule-breakers/
Brown, L. (2021, August 30). Texas "Freedom Defender" Who Rallied Against COVID-19 Measures Dies. New York Post. Retrieved from https://nypost.com/2021/08/30/texas-man-who-rallied-against-covid-19-measures-dies/
Coaston, J., & Rupar, A. (2020, April 16). Thousands of Michiganders Took to the Streets to Protest the Governor`s Stay-at-Home Order. VOX. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/2020/4/16/21222471/michigan-protests-coronavirus-stay-at-home-extension
French, P. (2020, April 5). In the 1918 Flu Pandemic, Not Wearing a Mask Was Illegal in Some Parts of America. What Changed? CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/03/americas/flu-america-1918-masks-intl-hnk/index.html
Gearan, A., & Wagner, J (2020, May 1). Trump Expresses Support for Angry Anti-Shutdown Protesters as More States Lift Coronavirus Lockdowns. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-expresses-support-for-angry-anti-shutdown-protesters-as-more-states-lift-coronavirus-lockdowns/2020/05/01/25570dbe-8b9f-11ea-8ac1-bfb250876b7a_story.html
Giuliani-Hoffman, F. (2020, August 16). Face Masks: in 2020, "Mask Slacking" Is More Partisan Than in 1918, Historians Say. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/16/us/face-mask-partisan-issue-2020-1918-trnd/index.html
Griffiths, J. (2020, April 5). Taiwan`s Coronavirus Response Is Among the Best Globally. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/04/04/asia/taiwan-coronavirus-response-who-intl-hnk/index.html
Hauser, C. (2020, August 3) The Mask Slackers of 1918: As the Influenza Pandemic Swept Across the United States in 1918 and 1919, Masks Took a Role in Political and Cultural Wars. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2020/08/03/us/mask-protests-1918.html
Hiestand, E., & O`Neill, K. (2020, August 19). 3 Questions: Historian Emma Teng on Face Masks as 公德心. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved from https://news.mit.edu/2020/meanings-face-masks-emma-teng-0819
History.com (Eds.). (2020, July 24). Why Was There a Backlash Against Face Masks During the Spanish Flu Pandemic of 1918? HISTORY. Retrieved from https://www.historyextra.com/period/20th-century/wear-face-masks-backlash-opposition-why-spanish-flu-coronavirus-covid-history/
History.com (Eds.). (2020, May 19). Spanish Flu. HISTORY. Retrieved from https://www.history.com/topics/world-war-i/1918-flu-pandemic#section_10
Howard, J., & Hassan, C. (2020, August 26). Covid-19 Superspreading Event in Boston May Have Led to 20,000 Cases, Researcher Says. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/08/25/health/covid-19-superspreading-boston-study/index.html
Kimball, S. (2022, April 18). TSA Will Not Enforce Covid Mask Mandate on Planes, Public Transit After Court Ruling, White House Says. CNBC. Retrieved from https://www.cnbc.com/2022/04/18/florida-judge-overturns-cdc-mask-mandate-for-public-transit-planes.html
Kulkarni, S. S. (2021, August 27). Texas Anti-Mask Organizer Clings to Life in a Battle With Covid-19. The New York Times. Retrieved from https://www.nytimes.com/2021/08/27/world/texas-anti-mask-organizer-clings-to-life-in-a-battle-with-covid-19.html
Lo, H. -Y. (2020, July 21). Why We Shouldn`t See Face Masks As an "Asian Thing". The Sydney Morning Herald. Retrieved from https://www.smh.com.au/national/why-we-shouldn-t-see-face-masks-as-an-asian-thing-20200716-p55csm.html
Loud, N. (2020, July 15). The Anti-Mask League of 1919: The Cultural Battle of an Enduring Pandemic. Untapped New York. Retrieved from https://untappedcities.com/2020/07/15/the-anti-mask-league-of-1919-the-cultural-battle-of-an-enduring-pandemic/
Marcus, J. (2020, June 23). The Dudes Who Won`t Wear Masks. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/06/dudes-who-wont-wear-masks/613375/
Martin, N. (2020, May 1). The Role of Digital Tools in Taiwan`s Response to COVID-19. Forum Privatheit Blog. Retrieved from https://forum-privatheit.de/blog/the-role-of-digital-tools-in-taiwans-response-to-covid-19/
Philipose, R. (2020, September 6). COVID-19: A Look at Anti-Mask Rallies Held Around the World Amid the Pandemic. The Indian Express. Retrieved from https://indianexpress.com/article/world/covid-19-a-look-at-anti-mask-rallies-held-around-the-world-amid-the-pandemic-6585722/
Phillips, J., Yoo, J. (2020, July 26). The constitutionality of federal mask mandates. The Orange County Register.
Retrieved from https://www.ocregister.com/2020/07/26/the-constitutionality-of-federal-mask-mandates/
Price, P. J. (2020, March 19). How a Fragmented Country Fights a Pandemic. The Atlantic. Retrieved from
https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/03/how-fragmented-country-fights-pandemic/608284/
Salvanto, A., Pinto, J. D., Khanna, K., Backus, F., & Cox, E. (2020, June 28.) Record Number of Americans Aay Fight Against Coronavirus Going Badly –CBS News poll. CBS News. Retrieved from https://www.klfy.com/coronavirus/record-number-of-americans-say-fight-against-coronavirus-going-badly-cbs-news-poll/
Santiago, L., Weisfeldt, S. (2021, May 13). Here`s How Two Mothers in the Same County Have Totally Different Views on Masks in Schools. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2021/05/13/us/florida-school-mask-mandates-wellness/index.html
Stewart, E. (2020, August 7). Anti-Maskers Explain Themselves. VOX. Retrieved from https://www.vox.com/the-goods/2020/8/7/21357400/anti-mask-protest-rallies-donald-trump-covid-19
Trent, S. (2020, May 6). Coronavirus Mask Confrontations Echo San Francisco`s Anti-Mask League a Century ago. The Washington Post. Retrieved from https://www.washingtonpost.com/history/2020/05/06/mask-protests-flu-san-francisco-coronavirus/
Tufts, J. (2021, August 22). "He loved his family": Caleb Wallace Dies After Battle With COVID-19, Pregnant Wife Says. Go San Angelo. Retrieved from https://www.gosanangelo.com/story/news/2021/08/22/texas-covid-delta-variant-hospitalizations-high-mom-fights-save-husband/8196516002/
Vargas, E. D., & Sanchez, G. R. (2020, August 31). American Individualism Is an Obstacle to Wider Mask Wearing in the US. Brookings. Retrieved from https://www.brookings.edu/blog/up-front/2020/08/31/american-individualism-is-an-obstacle-to-wider-mask-wearing-in-the-us/
Vogue, A. D. (2020, November 26). In a 5-4 Ruling, Supreme Court Sides With Religious Groups in a Dispute Over COVID-19 Restrictions in New York. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2020/11/26/politics/supreme-court-religious-restrictions-ruling-covid/index.html
Wagner, B. (2021, December 21). Fact Check: During Spanish Flu Epidemic, Refusal to Wear a Mask Led to Jail Time For Some. USA TODAY. Retrieved from https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/factcheck/2021/12/17/fact-check-during-spanish-flu-mask-slackers-faced-jail-time/8929102002/
Welk, B. (2021, January 4). Anti-Mask Protesters Storm Century City Mall in Los Angeles. The Wrap. Retrieved from
https://www.thewrap.com/century-city-mall-anti-mask-protest-ralphs-grocery-store/
Wilson, J. (2020, April 17). The Rightwing Groups Behind Wave of Protests Against COVID-19 Restrictions. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/17/far-right-coronavirus-protests-restrictions
Wilson, J. (2020, April 17). The Rightwing Groups Behind Wave of Protests Against COVID-19 Restrictions. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/apr/17/far-right-coronavirus-protests-restrictions
Wong, B. (2020, September 21). Why East Asians Were Wearing Masks Long Before COVID-19. Huffpost. Retrieved from https://www.huffpost.com/entry/east-asian-countries-face-masks-before-covid_l_5f63a43fc5b61845586837f4
Yan, H. (2021, May 20). The Texas Governor Is Banning Public Schools From Requiring Masks. Here`s What Parents Think. CNN. Retrieved from https://edition.cnn.com/2021/05/20/us/texas-face-masks-public-schools/index.html
Yermal JR., B. (2020, July 1). The Mask Debate Isn`t Just About Saving Face. Adults Who Wear Them and Those Who Don`t Explain Why. Morning Consult. Morning Consult. Retrieved from https://morningconsult.com/2020/07/01/the-mask-debate-isnt-just-about-saving-face-adults-who-wear-them-and-those-who-dont-explain-why/
Yong, E. (2020, August 4). How the Pandemic Defeated America. The Atlantic. Retrieved from https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2020/09/coronavirus-american-failure/614191/
Zhou, M., Yu, Y., & Fang, A. (2020, March 14). Asians in the US Torn Between Safety and Stigma Over Face Masks. NIKKEI ASIA. Retrieved from https://asia.nikkei.com/Spotlight/Coronavirus/Asians-in-US-torn-between-safety-and-stigma-over-face-masks		zh_TW
dc.identifier.doi (DOI) 10.6814/NCCU202201548en_US