學術產出-Theses
Article View/Open
Publication Export
-
題名 運用文字探勘分析致股東報告書與盈餘管理及審計公費之關聯性
The Association between Reports to Shareholders, Earnings Management and Audit Fees：Using Text Mining Approach作者 蔡和翰
Tsai, Ho-Han貢獻者 張祐慈
Chang, Yu-Tzu
蔡和翰
Tsai, Ho-Han關鍵詞 盈餘管理
審計公費
致股東報告書
語調分析
Tone analysis
Earnings management
Audit fees
Reports to shareholders日期 2023 上傳時間 6-Jul-2023 16:49:16 (UTC+8) 摘要 本研究使用Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformers (BERT)模型進行文字探勘，對我國2016年至2020年上市(櫃)公司致股東報告書進行語調分析，並探討語調與盈餘管理及審計公費之關聯性。BERT模型經過超參數調整及交叉驗證後，語調分類準確率達86%，具有一定的準確性。實證結果發現，致股東報告書語調與裁決性應計數呈現正相關，亦即語調越正向，公司盈餘管理程度越高。顯示管理階層可能會在報告書中呈現特定的語調，營造出公司經營良好的形象，以配合其盈餘管理行為。此外，致股東報告書語調與審計公費呈正相關。當報告書語調越正向時，會計師可能認為管理階層過度誇大營運表現，並未如實揭露公司資訊，因此存在較高的風險，故將收取更多審計公費。綜上所述，我國致股東報告書語調對盈餘管理程度之評估，以及審計公費之訂價具有一定影響。
This study uses the Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformers (BERT) model to conduct tone analysis on reports to shareholders of listed and OTC companies in Taiwan from 2016 to 2020, and explores the association between the tone of the reports and earnings management and audit fees. After hyperparameter tuning and cross-validation, the BERT model achieves a high classification accuracy of 86%. The empirical results show a positive association between the tone of reports to shareholders and discretionary accruals, indicating that the more positive the tone, the higher the degree of earnings management. This implies that management may utilize a specific tone to create a positive image of their business operations, aligning with their earnings management practices. Furthermore, the tone is positive associated with audit fees. This suggests that when the reports convey a more positive tone, auditors may perceive management as excessively emphasizing their performance and inadequately disclosing company information, leading to higher risks and thus higher audit fees. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the tone of the reports to shareholders in Taiwan has an impact on the assessment of the extent of earnings management and the determination of audit fees.參考文獻 一、中文文獻陳予得與林嬋娟，2022，應用遷移學習與文字探勘分析致股東報告書，中華會計學刊，第18卷，第1期 (7月)：123-166。廖秀梅、王貞靜與戚務君，2012，一套臺灣完整的審計公費資訊告訴我們什麼，中華會計學刊，第8卷，第1期 (1月)：49-88。二、英文文獻Ashbaugh, H., R. LaFond, and B. W. Mayhew. 2003. Do nonaudit services compromise auditor independence? Further evidence. The Accounting Review 78 (3): 611-639.Ball, R., and L. Shivakumar. 2006. The role of accruals in asymmetrically timely gain and loss recognition. Journal of Accounting Research 44 (2): 207-242.Becker, C. L., M. L. Defond, J. Jiambalvo, and K. R. Subramanyam. 1998. The effect of audit quality on earnings management. Contemporary Accounting Research 15 (1): 1-24.Bell, T. B., R. Doogar, and I. Solomon. 2008. Audit labor usage and fees under business risk auditing. Journal of Accounting Research 46 (4): 729-760.Boo, E., and D. Sharma. 2008. Effect of regulatory oversight on the association between internal governance characteristics and audit fees. Accounting & Finance 48 (1): 51-71.Boudt, K., and J. Thewissen. 2019. Jockeying for position in CEO letters: Impression management and sentiment analytics. Financial Management 48 (1): 77-115.Chen, C. Y., C. J. Lin, and Y. C. Lin. 2008. Audit partner tenure, audit firm tenure, and discretionary accruals: Does long auditor tenure impair earnings quality? Contemporary Accounting Research 25 (2): 415-445.Chi, J. X., and M. Gupta. 2009. Overvaluation and earnings management. Journal of Banking & Finance 33 (9): 1652-1663.Chi, W., and H. Huang. 2005. Discretionary accruals, audit-firm tenure and audit partner tenure: Empirical evidence from Taiwan. Journal of Contemporary Accounting & Economics 1 (1): 65-92.Choi, J. H., J. B. Kim, and Y. S. Zang. 2010. Do abnormally high audit fees impair audit quality? Auditing: Journal of Practice & Theory 29 (2): 115-140.Craswell, A. T., and J. R. Francis. 1999. Pricing initial audit engagements: A test of competing theories. The Accounting Review 74 (2): 201-216.Davis, A. K., J. M. Piger, and L. M. Sedor. 2012. Beyond the numbers: Measuring the information content of earnings press release language. Contemporary Accounting Research 29 (3): 845-868.de Castro, V. B., F. A. Gul, M. B. Muttakin, and D. G. Mihret. 2019. Optimistic tone and audit fees: Some Australian evidence. International Journal of Auditing 23 (2): 352-364.DeAngelo, H., L. Deangelo, and D. J. Skinner. 1994. Accounting choice in troubled companies. Journal of Accounting and Economics 17 (1-2): 113-143.DeAngelo, L. E. 1981. Auditor independence, low balling, and disclosure regulation. Journal of Accounting and Economics 3 (2): 113-127.Dechow, P. M., and I. D. Dichev. 2002. The quality of accruals and earnings: The role of accrual estimation errors. The Accounting Review 77 (s-1): 35-59.Dechow, P. M., R. G. Sloan, and A. P. Sweeney. 1995. Detecting earnings management. The Accounting Review 70 (2): 193-225.Dechow, P. M., R. G. Sloan, and A. P. Sweeney. 1996. Causes and consequences of earnings manipulation: An analysis of firms subject to enforcement actions by the SEC. Contemporary Accounting Research 13 (1): 1-36.DeFond, M. L., J. R. Francis, and T. J. Wong. 2000. Auditor industry specialization and market segmentation: Evidence from Hong Kong. Auditing: Journal of Practice & Theory 19 (1): 49-66.DeFond, M. L., and J. Jiambalvo. 1994. Debt covenant violation and manipulation of accruals. Journal of Accounting and Economics 17 (1-2): 145-176.DeFond, M. L., and K. R. Subramanyam. 1998. Auditor changes and discretionary accruals. Journal of Accounting and Economics 25 (1): 35-67.Devlin, J., M. W. Chang, K. Lee, and K. Toutanova. 2019. BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv:1810.04805.Ettredge, M., and R. Greenberg. 1990. Determinants of fee cutting on initial audit engagements. Journal of Accounting Research 28 (1): 198-210.Feldman, R., S. Govindaraj, J. Livnat, and B. Segal. 2010. Management`s tone change, post earnings announcement drift and accruals. Review of Accounting Studies 15 (4): 915-953.Francis, J. R. 1984. The effect of audit firm size on audit prices: A study of the Australian market. Journal of Accounting and Economics 6 (2): 133-151.Francis, J. R., K. Reichelt, and D. Wang. 2005. The pricing of national and city-specific reputations for industry expertise in the US audit market. The Accounting Review 80 (1): 113-136.Frankel, R. M., M. F. Johnson, and K. K. Nelson. 2002. The relation between auditors` fees for nonaudit services and earnings management. The Accounting Review 77 (s-1): 71-105.Fung, S. Y. K., F. A. Gul, and J. Krishnan. 2012. City-level auditor industry specialization, economies of scale, and audit pricing. The Accounting Review 87 (4): 1281-1307.Ghosh, A., and D. Moon. 2005. Auditor tenure and perceptions of audit quality. The Accounting Review 80 (2): 585-612.Goncharov, I., E. J. Riedl, and T. Sellhorn. 2014. Fair value and audit fees. Review of Accounting Studies 19 (1): 210-241.Goodwin-Stewart, J., and P. Kent. 2006. Relation between external audit fees, audit committee characteristics and internal audit. Accounting & Finance 46 (3): 387-404.Greiner, A., L. Patelli, and M. Pedrini. 2020. Characteristics of managerial tone priced by auditors: Evidence based on annual letters to shareholders of large U.S. firms. Auditing: Journal of Practice & Theory 39 (3): 139-161.Hay, D. C., W. R. Knechel, and N. Wong. 2006. Audit fees: A meta-analysis of the effect of supply and demand attributes. Contemporary Accounting Research 23 (1): 141-191.Healy, P. M., and J. M. Wahlen. 1999. A review of the earnings management literature and its implications for standard setting. Accounting Horizons 13 (4): 365-383.Hogan, C. E., and M. S. Wilkins. 2008. Evidence on the audit risk model: Do auditors increase audit fees in the presence of internal control deficiencies? Contemporary Accounting Research 25 (1): 219-242.Hossain, M., S. Mitra, and F. Salama. 2019. Narrative disclosures, firm life cycle, and audit fees. International Journal of Auditing 23 (3): 403-423.Houston, R. W., M. F. Peters, and J. H. Pratt. 2005. Nonlitigation risk and pricing audit services. Auditing: Journal of Practice & Theory 24 (1): 37-53.Huang, A. H., A. Y. Zang, and R. Zheng. 2014. Evidence on the information content of text in analyst reports. The Accounting Review 89 (6): 2151-2180.Jegadeesh, N., and D. Wu. 2013. Word power: A new approach for content analysis. Journal of Financial Economics 110 (3): 712-729.Johnson, V. E., I. K. Khurana, and J. K. Reynolds. 2002. Audit-firm tenure and the quality of financial reports. Contemporary Accounting Research 19 (4): 637-660.Jones, J. J. 1991. Earnings management during import relief investigations. Journal of Accounting Research 29 (2): 193-228.Kothari, S. P., A. J. Leone, and C. E. Wasley. 2005. Performance matched discretionary accrual measures. Journal of Accounting and Economics 39 (1): 163-197.Lai, K. M. Y., B. Srinidhi, F. A. Gul, and J. S. L. Tsui. 2017. Board gender diversity, auditor fees, and auditor choice. Contemporary Accounting Research 34 (3): 1681-1714.Li, M. G., W. R. Li, F. Wang, X. J. Jia, and G. W. Rui. 2021. Applying BERT to analyze investor sentiment in stock market. Neural Computing & Applications 33 (10): 4663-4676.Loughran, T., and B. McDonald. 2011. When is a liability not a liability? Textual analysis, dictionaries, and 10-Ks. The Journal of Finance 66 (1): 35-65.Malik, M. F., Y. G. Shan, and J. Y. Tong. 2022. Do auditors price litigious tone? Accounting & Finance 62 (s-1): 1715-1760.Manela, A., and A. Moreira. 2017. News implied volatility and disaster concerns. Journal of Financial Economics 123 (1): 137-162.Mitra, S., D. R. Deis, and M. Hossain. 2009. The association between audit fees and reported earnings quality in pre‐ and post‐Sarbanes‐Oxley regimes. Review of Accounting and Finance 8 (3): 232-252.Palmrose, Z. V. 1986. Audit fees and auditor size - Further evidence. Journal of Accounting Research 24 (1): 97-110.Pan, S. J., and Q. Yang. 2010. A survey on transfer learning. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering 22 (10): 1345-1359.Reynolds, J. K., and J. R. Francis. 2000. Does size matter? The influence of large clients on office-level auditor reporting decisions. Journal of Accounting & Economics 30 (3): 375-400.Roychowdhury, S. 2006. Earnings management through real activities manipulation. Journal of Accounting and Economics 42 (3): 335-370.Schipper, K. 1989. Commentary on earnings management. Accounting Horizons 3 (4): 91-102.Siano, F., and P. Wysocki. 2021. Transfer learning and textual analysis of accounting disclosures: Applying big data methods to small(er) datasets. Accounting Horizons 35 (3): 217-244.Simunic, D. A. 1980. The pricing of audit services - Theory and evidence. Journal of Accounting Research 18 (1): 161-190.Simunic, D. A. 1984. Auditing, consulting, and auditor independence. Journal of Accounting Research 22 (2): 679-702.Srinidhi, B. N., and F. A. Gul. 2007. The differential effects of auditors` nonaudit and audit fees on accrual quality. Contemporary Accounting Research 24 (2): 595-629.Yang, R., Y. Yu, M. L. Liu, and K. Wu. 2018. Corporate risk disclosure and audit fee: A text mining approach. The Accounting Review 27 (3): 583-594.Zerni, M. 2012. Audit partner specialization and audit fees: Some evidence from Sweden. Contemporary Accounting Research 29 (1): 312-340.Zhang, X. F. 2007. Accruals, investment, and the accrual anomaly. The Accounting Review 82 (5): 1333-1363. 描述 碩士
國立政治大學
會計學系
110353016資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0110353016 資料類型 thesis dc.contributor.advisor 張祐慈 zh_TW dc.contributor.advisor Chang, Yu-Tzu en_US dc.contributor.author (Authors) 蔡和翰 zh_TW dc.contributor.author (Authors) Tsai, Ho-Han en_US dc.creator (作者) 蔡和翰 zh_TW dc.creator (作者) Tsai, Ho-Han en_US dc.date (日期) 2023 en_US dc.date.accessioned 6-Jul-2023 16:49:16 (UTC+8) - dc.date.available 6-Jul-2023 16:49:16 (UTC+8) - dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 6-Jul-2023 16:49:16 (UTC+8) - dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0110353016 en_US dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/145872 - dc.description (描述) 碩士 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 會計學系 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 110353016 zh_TW dc.description.abstract (摘要) 本研究使用Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformers (BERT)模型進行文字探勘，對我國2016年至2020年上市(櫃)公司致股東報告書進行語調分析，並探討語調與盈餘管理及審計公費之關聯性。BERT模型經過超參數調整及交叉驗證後，語調分類準確率達86%，具有一定的準確性。實證結果發現，致股東報告書語調與裁決性應計數呈現正相關，亦即語調越正向，公司盈餘管理程度越高。顯示管理階層可能會在報告書中呈現特定的語調，營造出公司經營良好的形象，以配合其盈餘管理行為。此外，致股東報告書語調與審計公費呈正相關。當報告書語調越正向時，會計師可能認為管理階層過度誇大營運表現，並未如實揭露公司資訊，因此存在較高的風險，故將收取更多審計公費。綜上所述，我國致股東報告書語調對盈餘管理程度之評估，以及審計公費之訂價具有一定影響。 zh_TW dc.description.abstract (摘要) This study uses the Bidirectional Encoder Representation from Transformers (BERT) model to conduct tone analysis on reports to shareholders of listed and OTC companies in Taiwan from 2016 to 2020, and explores the association between the tone of the reports and earnings management and audit fees. After hyperparameter tuning and cross-validation, the BERT model achieves a high classification accuracy of 86%. The empirical results show a positive association between the tone of reports to shareholders and discretionary accruals, indicating that the more positive the tone, the higher the degree of earnings management. This implies that management may utilize a specific tone to create a positive image of their business operations, aligning with their earnings management practices. Furthermore, the tone is positive associated with audit fees. This suggests that when the reports convey a more positive tone, auditors may perceive management as excessively emphasizing their performance and inadequately disclosing company information, leading to higher risks and thus higher audit fees. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the tone of the reports to shareholders in Taiwan has an impact on the assessment of the extent of earnings management and the determination of audit fees. en_US dc.description.tableofcontents 壹、緒論 1一、研究動機與目的 1二、研究問題 3貳、文獻探討 4一、盈餘管理 4(一) 盈餘管理定義 4(二) 盈餘管理衡量方式 5二、審計公費 5三、文字探勘 6(一) 文字探勘技術發展 6(二) BERT模型 7(三) 審計領域應用 8參、研究方法 10一、研究假說 10二、實證模型與變數衡量 12(一) 盈餘管理實證模型與變數衡量 12(二) 審計公費實證模型與變數衡量 17三、資料來源與樣本選取 22四、BERT模型 25肆、實證結果與分析 29一、敘述性統計分析 29二、相關係數分析 32三、實證結果分析 35(一) 假說一實證結果 35(二) 假說二實證結果 37四、追加分析 39伍、結論與限制 42一、研究結論 42二、研究限制及建議 44參考文獻 45附錄 50 zh_TW dc.format.extent 1100068 bytes - dc.format.mimetype application/pdf - dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0110353016 en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) 盈餘管理 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 審計公費 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 致股東報告書 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 語調分析 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) Tone analysis en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) Earnings management en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) Audit fees en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) Reports to shareholders en_US dc.title (題名) 運用文字探勘分析致股東報告書與盈餘管理及審計公費之關聯性 zh_TW dc.title (題名) The Association between Reports to Shareholders, Earnings Management and Audit Fees：Using Text Mining Approach en_US dc.type (資料類型) thesis en_US dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 一、中文文獻陳予得與林嬋娟，2022，應用遷移學習與文字探勘分析致股東報告書，中華會計學刊，第18卷，第1期 (7月)：123-166。廖秀梅、王貞靜與戚務君，2012，一套臺灣完整的審計公費資訊告訴我們什麼，中華會計學刊，第8卷，第1期 (1月)：49-88。二、英文文獻Ashbaugh, H., R. LaFond, and B. W. Mayhew. 2003. Do nonaudit services compromise auditor independence? Further evidence. The Accounting Review 78 (3): 611-639.Ball, R., and L. Shivakumar. 2006. The role of accruals in asymmetrically timely gain and loss recognition. Journal of Accounting Research 44 (2): 207-242.Becker, C. L., M. L. Defond, J. Jiambalvo, and K. R. Subramanyam. 1998. The effect of audit quality on earnings management. Contemporary Accounting Research 15 (1): 1-24.Bell, T. B., R. Doogar, and I. Solomon. 2008. Audit labor usage and fees under business risk auditing. Journal of Accounting Research 46 (4): 729-760.Boo, E., and D. Sharma. 2008. Effect of regulatory oversight on the association between internal governance characteristics and audit fees. Accounting & Finance 48 (1): 51-71.Boudt, K., and J. Thewissen. 2019. Jockeying for position in CEO letters: Impression management and sentiment analytics. Financial Management 48 (1): 77-115.Chen, C. Y., C. J. Lin, and Y. C. Lin. 2008. Audit partner tenure, audit firm tenure, and discretionary accruals: Does long auditor tenure impair earnings quality? Contemporary Accounting Research 25 (2): 415-445.Chi, J. X., and M. Gupta. 2009. Overvaluation and earnings management. Journal of Banking & Finance 33 (9): 1652-1663.Chi, W., and H. Huang. 2005. Discretionary accruals, audit-firm tenure and audit partner tenure: Empirical evidence from Taiwan. Journal of Contemporary Accounting & Economics 1 (1): 65-92.Choi, J. H., J. B. Kim, and Y. S. Zang. 2010. Do abnormally high audit fees impair audit quality? Auditing: Journal of Practice & Theory 29 (2): 115-140.Craswell, A. T., and J. R. Francis. 1999. Pricing initial audit engagements: A test of competing theories. The Accounting Review 74 (2): 201-216.Davis, A. K., J. M. Piger, and L. M. Sedor. 2012. Beyond the numbers: Measuring the information content of earnings press release language. Contemporary Accounting Research 29 (3): 845-868.de Castro, V. B., F. A. Gul, M. B. Muttakin, and D. G. Mihret. 2019. Optimistic tone and audit fees: Some Australian evidence. International Journal of Auditing 23 (2): 352-364.DeAngelo, H., L. Deangelo, and D. J. Skinner. 1994. Accounting choice in troubled companies. Journal of Accounting and Economics 17 (1-2): 113-143.DeAngelo, L. E. 1981. Auditor independence, low balling, and disclosure regulation. Journal of Accounting and Economics 3 (2): 113-127.Dechow, P. M., and I. D. Dichev. 2002. The quality of accruals and earnings: The role of accrual estimation errors. The Accounting Review 77 (s-1): 35-59.Dechow, P. M., R. G. Sloan, and A. P. Sweeney. 1995. Detecting earnings management. The Accounting Review 70 (2): 193-225.Dechow, P. M., R. G. Sloan, and A. P. Sweeney. 1996. Causes and consequences of earnings manipulation: An analysis of firms subject to enforcement actions by the SEC. Contemporary Accounting Research 13 (1): 1-36.DeFond, M. L., J. R. Francis, and T. J. Wong. 2000. Auditor industry specialization and market segmentation: Evidence from Hong Kong. Auditing: Journal of Practice & Theory 19 (1): 49-66.DeFond, M. L., and J. Jiambalvo. 1994. Debt covenant violation and manipulation of accruals. Journal of Accounting and Economics 17 (1-2): 145-176.DeFond, M. L., and K. R. Subramanyam. 1998. Auditor changes and discretionary accruals. Journal of Accounting and Economics 25 (1): 35-67.Devlin, J., M. W. Chang, K. Lee, and K. Toutanova. 2019. BERT: Pre-training of deep bidirectional transformers for language understanding. arXiv:1810.04805.Ettredge, M., and R. Greenberg. 1990. Determinants of fee cutting on initial audit engagements. Journal of Accounting Research 28 (1): 198-210.Feldman, R., S. Govindaraj, J. Livnat, and B. Segal. 2010. Management`s tone change, post earnings announcement drift and accruals. Review of Accounting Studies 15 (4): 915-953.Francis, J. R. 1984. The effect of audit firm size on audit prices: A study of the Australian market. Journal of Accounting and Economics 6 (2): 133-151.Francis, J. R., K. Reichelt, and D. Wang. 2005. The pricing of national and city-specific reputations for industry expertise in the US audit market. The Accounting Review 80 (1): 113-136.Frankel, R. M., M. F. Johnson, and K. K. Nelson. 2002. The relation between auditors` fees for nonaudit services and earnings management. The Accounting Review 77 (s-1): 71-105.Fung, S. Y. K., F. A. Gul, and J. Krishnan. 2012. City-level auditor industry specialization, economies of scale, and audit pricing. The Accounting Review 87 (4): 1281-1307.Ghosh, A., and D. Moon. 2005. Auditor tenure and perceptions of audit quality. The Accounting Review 80 (2): 585-612.Goncharov, I., E. J. Riedl, and T. Sellhorn. 2014. Fair value and audit fees. Review of Accounting Studies 19 (1): 210-241.Goodwin-Stewart, J., and P. Kent. 2006. Relation between external audit fees, audit committee characteristics and internal audit. Accounting & Finance 46 (3): 387-404.Greiner, A., L. Patelli, and M. Pedrini. 2020. Characteristics of managerial tone priced by auditors: Evidence based on annual letters to shareholders of large U.S. firms. Auditing: Journal of Practice & Theory 39 (3): 139-161.Hay, D. C., W. R. Knechel, and N. Wong. 2006. Audit fees: A meta-analysis of the effect of supply and demand attributes. Contemporary Accounting Research 23 (1): 141-191.Healy, P. M., and J. M. Wahlen. 1999. A review of the earnings management literature and its implications for standard setting. Accounting Horizons 13 (4): 365-383.Hogan, C. E., and M. S. Wilkins. 2008. Evidence on the audit risk model: Do auditors increase audit fees in the presence of internal control deficiencies? Contemporary Accounting Research 25 (1): 219-242.Hossain, M., S. Mitra, and F. Salama. 2019. Narrative disclosures, firm life cycle, and audit fees. International Journal of Auditing 23 (3): 403-423.Houston, R. W., M. F. Peters, and J. H. Pratt. 2005. Nonlitigation risk and pricing audit services. Auditing: Journal of Practice & Theory 24 (1): 37-53.Huang, A. H., A. Y. Zang, and R. Zheng. 2014. Evidence on the information content of text in analyst reports. The Accounting Review 89 (6): 2151-2180.Jegadeesh, N., and D. Wu. 2013. Word power: A new approach for content analysis. Journal of Financial Economics 110 (3): 712-729.Johnson, V. E., I. K. Khurana, and J. K. Reynolds. 2002. Audit-firm tenure and the quality of financial reports. Contemporary Accounting Research 19 (4): 637-660.Jones, J. J. 1991. Earnings management during import relief investigations. Journal of Accounting Research 29 (2): 193-228.Kothari, S. P., A. J. Leone, and C. E. Wasley. 2005. Performance matched discretionary accrual measures. Journal of Accounting and Economics 39 (1): 163-197.Lai, K. M. Y., B. Srinidhi, F. A. Gul, and J. S. L. Tsui. 2017. Board gender diversity, auditor fees, and auditor choice. Contemporary Accounting Research 34 (3): 1681-1714.Li, M. G., W. R. Li, F. Wang, X. J. Jia, and G. W. Rui. 2021. Applying BERT to analyze investor sentiment in stock market. Neural Computing & Applications 33 (10): 4663-4676.Loughran, T., and B. McDonald. 2011. When is a liability not a liability? Textual analysis, dictionaries, and 10-Ks. The Journal of Finance 66 (1): 35-65.Malik, M. F., Y. G. Shan, and J. Y. Tong. 2022. Do auditors price litigious tone? Accounting & Finance 62 (s-1): 1715-1760.Manela, A., and A. Moreira. 2017. News implied volatility and disaster concerns. Journal of Financial Economics 123 (1): 137-162.Mitra, S., D. R. Deis, and M. Hossain. 2009. The association between audit fees and reported earnings quality in pre‐ and post‐Sarbanes‐Oxley regimes. Review of Accounting and Finance 8 (3): 232-252.Palmrose, Z. V. 1986. Audit fees and auditor size - Further evidence. Journal of Accounting Research 24 (1): 97-110.Pan, S. J., and Q. Yang. 2010. A survey on transfer learning. IEEE Transactions on Knowledge and Data Engineering 22 (10): 1345-1359.Reynolds, J. K., and J. R. Francis. 2000. Does size matter? The influence of large clients on office-level auditor reporting decisions. Journal of Accounting & Economics 30 (3): 375-400.Roychowdhury, S. 2006. Earnings management through real activities manipulation. Journal of Accounting and Economics 42 (3): 335-370.Schipper, K. 1989. Commentary on earnings management. Accounting Horizons 3 (4): 91-102.Siano, F., and P. Wysocki. 2021. Transfer learning and textual analysis of accounting disclosures: Applying big data methods to small(er) datasets. Accounting Horizons 35 (3): 217-244.Simunic, D. A. 1980. The pricing of audit services - Theory and evidence. Journal of Accounting Research 18 (1): 161-190.Simunic, D. A. 1984. Auditing, consulting, and auditor independence. Journal of Accounting Research 22 (2): 679-702.Srinidhi, B. N., and F. A. Gul. 2007. The differential effects of auditors` nonaudit and audit fees on accrual quality. Contemporary Accounting Research 24 (2): 595-629.Yang, R., Y. Yu, M. L. Liu, and K. Wu. 2018. Corporate risk disclosure and audit fee: A text mining approach. The Accounting Review 27 (3): 583-594.Zerni, M. 2012. Audit partner specialization and audit fees: Some evidence from Sweden. Contemporary Accounting Research 29 (1): 312-340.Zhang, X. F. 2007. Accruals, investment, and the accrual anomaly. The Accounting Review 82 (5): 1333-1363. zh_TW
