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題名 21 世紀初尼加拉瓜的移民：2001-2020
Migration in Nicaragua in the early 21st century: 2001-2020作者 劉大偉
Gonzalez, David Benjamin Lara貢獻者 周惠民
Chou, Whei-Ming.
劉大偉
David Benjamin Lara Gonzalez關鍵詞 尼加拉瓜
移民
推拉
社會經濟因素
Nicaragua
migration
push and pull
socioeconomic factors日期 2023 上傳時間 1-Sep-2023 15:52:43 (UTC+8) 摘要 自發現美洲以來，尼加拉瓜經歷了人口外流，主要是外來移民。 本研究的目的是了解 21 世紀前 20 年的移民情況。因此，確定了影響和乾擾地理搬遷決策過程的因素，即經濟、社會、政治和個人推動因素，包括 GDP、 GDP 增長、失業率、基尼指數等。 推拉因素理論的應用對於本研究的完成至關重要
Since the discovery of America, Nicaragua has experience outflow of people, mainly emigrants. The objective of this research is to understand migration for the first 20 years of the century 21. Hence, factors that influence and interfere in the decision making process of geographical relocation namely economic, social, political and individual push factors were identified which include GDP, GDP growth, unemployment, Gini index among others. The application of the push and pull factor theory was vital for this completion of this research.參考文獻 References Abel, G. J., Brottrager, M., Crespo Cuaresma, J., & Muttarak, R. (2019). Climate, conflict and forced migration. Global Environment Change, 239-249. Apodaca, C. (1998, January 1). Human Rights Abuses: Precursor to Refugee Flight? Journal of Refugee Studies, 11(1), 80-93. Asamblea Nacional de Nicaragua. (2020, February 11). Normas Juridicas de Nicaragua. Retrieved from SOBRE LA APLICACIÓN DE LOS SALARIOS MÍNIMOS APROBADOS POR LA COMISIÓN NACIONAL DE SALARIO MÍNIMO: http://legislacion.asamblea.gob.ni/Normaweb.nsf/3133c0d121ea3897062568a1005e0f89/08484716fe442fcd0625850300563bd4?OpenDocument Banco Centroamericano de Integración Económica. (2018). Estrategia de pais Nicaragua 2018-2022. Tegucigalpa: Banco Centroamericano de Integración Económica. Baumeister, E. (2006). Migración interanacional y desarollo de Nicaragua. Santiago de Chile: CELADE. Baumeister, E., Fernández, E., & Acuña, G. (2008). Estudio sobre las migraciones regionales de los nicaragüenses. Guatemala: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. Brzoska, M., & Fröhlich, C. (2016). Climate change, migration and violent conflict: vulnerabilities, pathways and adaption strategies. Migration and Development, 190-220. Burrows, K., & Kinney, P. L. (2016). Exploring the Climate Change, Migration and Conflict Nexus. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. CIA . (2022, December 21). Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Factbook: https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/2022/countries/nicaragua/ Clark, W. A., & Maas, R. (2015). Interpreting Migration Through the Prism of Reasons for Moves . Population, Space and Place, 54-67. Clemens, M. A. (2014). Does Development Reduce Migration? In R. E. Lucas, International Handbook on Migration and Economic Development. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. DaVanzo, J. (1978). Does Unemployment Affect Migration? Evidence from Micro Data. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 60(4), 504-514. Davenport, C., Moore, W., & Poe, S. (2003). Sometime You Just Have to Live: Domestic Threats and Forced Migration, 1964-1989. International Interactions, 27-55. EFE. (2022, November 18). Perspectiva económica de Nicaragua es favorable, según una misión del FMI. Retrieved from Revista Summa: https://revistasumma.com/perspectiva-economica-de-nicaragua-es-favorable-segun-una-mision-del-fmi/ EY. (2023, February 27). Nicaragua| Salario Mínimo para el año 2023. Retrieved from EY: https://www.ey.com/es_cr/tax/tax-alerts/nicaragua-salario-minimo-para-el-ano-2023 EY Law. (2020). Costa Rica | Aumento Salarial Sector Privado año 2020. Retrieved from EY Law: https://assets.ey.com/content/dam/ey-sites/ey-com/es_cr/topics/tax/aumento-salarial-sector-privado.pdf?download Flores Bermúdez, A., & Robles, F. (2022, December 27). In Record Numbers, an Unexpected Migrant Group Is Fleeing to the U.S. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/27/world/americas/nicaragua-us-migration.html IndexMundi. (2021, September 18). Fact Book-Countries-Nicaragua. Retrieved from IndexMundi: https://www.indexmundi.com/nicaragua/#Introduction Instituto Nacional de Información de Desarrollo. (2020). INIDE informa sobre el valor de la Canasta Básica- Marzo 2020. Retrieved from INIDE: https://www.inide.gob.ni/Home/canasta Integral Human Development. (2022, February). Nicaragua-Country Profile. Retrieved from Integral Human Development : https://migrants-refugees.va/country-profile/nicaragua/ International Monetary Fund. (2020). World Economic Outlook: The Great Lockdown. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, Publication Services. International Monetary Fund. (2023). 2022 ARTICLE IV CONSULTATION—PRESS RELEASE; STAFF REPORT; AND STATEMENT BY THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR FOR NICARAGUA. Washington: International Monetary Fund Publication Services. International Organization for Migration. (n.d.). About Migration. Retrieved from International Organization for Migration: https://www.iom.int/about-migration International Trade Administration. (2022, August 12). Country Commercial Guides Nicaragua - Market Overview. Retrieved from International Trade Administration: https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/nicaragua-market-overview Krishnakumar, P., & Indumathi, T. (2014). PULL AND PUSH FACTORS OF MIGRATION. Global Management Review, 8(4), 8-13. Langan, M., & Price, S. (2021). Migration, development and EU free trade deals: the paradox of Economic Partnership Agreements as a push factor for migration. Global Affairs, 505-521. Larson, E. M. (1993). Nicaraguan Refugees in Costa Rica from 1980-1993. Yearbook (Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers), 67-79. Lee, E. S. (1966). A Theory of Migration. Demography, 3(1), 47-57. Marks, S. (2023, March 17). Nicaragua on the Brink: Protests, Elections, and Mass Atrocity. Retrieved from Georgetown Journal of International Affairs: https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2023/03/17/nicaragua-on-the-brink-protests-elections-and-mass-atrocity/ Martínez Largaespada, A. (2003). Nicaragüenses en Ciudad de Guatemala : una aproximación a la identidad nacional. Guatemala: Maestría en Ciencias Sociales, FLASCO, Programa Centroamericano de Postgrado. Nagel, C., & Boyle, P. (2020). Migration. In A. Kobayashi, & Elsevier (Firm), International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (Second Edition) (pp. 81-88). Amsterdam: Elsevier. Petro Larrota, C. F., & Calle Echeverry, D. (2019, September 10). Súbditos de diferentes tiranos: Las migraciones nicaragüenses tras la Revolución Sandinista. Retrieved from Univesidad del Rosario : https://urosario.edu.co/en/node/15411 Ripley III, C. G. (2023, April 19). Crisis provoca emigración récord desde Nicaragua, superando los niveles de la Guerra Fría. Retrieved from Migration Policy Insitute: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/crisis-provoca-emigracion-record-desde-nicaragua Sørensen, N. N. (2013). Central American migration, remittances and transnational development. In D. Sanchez-Ancochea, & S. Martí i Puig, Handbook of Central American Governance (pp. 45-58). London: Routledge. Sausner, E. B., & Webster, N. (2017). Migration and Community Resilience in Nicaraguan Afro-Caribbean Coastal Communities. Journal of Developing Societies - Sage Journals, 484-507. Stimson, R. J., & Minnery, J. (1998). Why People Move to the `Sun-belť: A Case Study of Long-distance Migration to the Gold Coast, Australia. Urban Studies, 35, 193-214. Stobierski, T. (2021, June 8). WHAT IS GDP & WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? Retrieved from Harvard Business School: https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/why-is-gdp-important The Information Architects of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Nicaragua: Facts & Stats. Retrieved from Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/facts/Nicaragua The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (n.d.). Non-ODA flows to developing countries: Remittances. Retrieved from The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/beyond-oda-remittances.htm The World Bank. (2018). Moving for Prosperity: Global Migration and Labor Markets. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications. The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP (current US$) - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?end=2021&locations=NI&start=1990 The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP growth (annual %) - Costa Rica. Retrieved from The World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2020&locations=CR&start=2001 The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP growth (annual %) - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2020&locations=NI&start=2001 The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP Growth (annual %) - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2021&locations=NI&start=1991 The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP growth (annual %) - United States. Retrieved from The World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2020&locations=US&start=2001 The World Bank. (n.d.). Glossary | DataBank - Net Migration. Retrieved from The World Bank: https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/population-estimates-and-projections/series/SM.POP.NETM The World Bank. (n.d.). GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) - Nicaragua, Latin America & Caribbean (excluding high income), North America. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD?end=2021&locations=NI-XJ-XU&most_recent_value_desc=false&start=1962&view=chart The World Bank. (n.d.). Net Migration - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.NETM?locations=NI The World Bank. (n.d.). Personal remittances, received (% of GDP) - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.TRF.PWKR.DT.GD.ZS?locations=NI The World Bank. (n.d.). Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate)- Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS?contextual=default&locations=NI Ton, G. (2000). Seasonal migration and peasant livelihood strategies: migration of Nicaraguan smallholders to Costa Rica. In R. Ruben, & J. Bastiaensen, Rural Development in Central America: Markets, Livelihoods, and Local Governance (pp. 210-227). MacMillan Press; St. Martin`s Press. United Nations. (2022, December 15). UN rights chief reports on intensified `climate of oppression` in Nicaragua. Retrieved from UN News: https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/12/1131757 University of Texas at Austin. (2005). Gini Definition. Retrieved from Law and Democracy in Latin America: https://www.laits.utexas.edu/lawdem/unit03/reading2/Gini_definition.html Vivas Viachica, E. A. (2007). Migración interna en Nicaragua: descropción actualizada e implicaciones de política, con ènfasis en el flujo rural-urbano. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL. Yarris, K. E. (2014). “Quiero ir y no quiero ir” (I Want to Go and I Don’t Want to Go): Nicaraguan Children’s Ambivalent Experiences of Transnational Family Life. The Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, 284-309. 描述 碩士
國立政治大學
亞太研究英語碩士學位學程(IMAS)
106926022資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0106926022 資料類型 thesis dc.contributor.advisor 周惠民 zh_TW dc.contributor.advisor Chou, Whei-Ming. en_US dc.contributor.author (Authors) 劉大偉 zh_TW dc.contributor.author (Authors) David Benjamin Lara Gonzalez en_US dc.creator (作者) 劉大偉 zh_TW dc.creator (作者) Gonzalez, David Benjamin Lara en_US dc.date (日期) 2023 en_US dc.date.accessioned 1-Sep-2023 15:52:43 (UTC+8) - dc.date.available 1-Sep-2023 15:52:43 (UTC+8) - dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 1-Sep-2023 15:52:43 (UTC+8) - dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0106926022 en_US dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/147150 - dc.description (描述) 碩士 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 亞太研究英語碩士學位學程(IMAS) zh_TW dc.description (描述) 106926022 zh_TW dc.description.abstract (摘要) 自發現美洲以來，尼加拉瓜經歷了人口外流，主要是外來移民。 本研究的目的是了解 21 世紀前 20 年的移民情況。因此，確定了影響和乾擾地理搬遷決策過程的因素，即經濟、社會、政治和個人推動因素，包括 GDP、 GDP 增長、失業率、基尼指數等。 推拉因素理論的應用對於本研究的完成至關重要 zh_TW dc.description.abstract (摘要) Since the discovery of America, Nicaragua has experience outflow of people, mainly emigrants. The objective of this research is to understand migration for the first 20 years of the century 21. Hence, factors that influence and interfere in the decision making process of geographical relocation namely economic, social, political and individual push factors were identified which include GDP, GDP growth, unemployment, Gini index among others. The application of the push and pull factor theory was vital for this completion of this research. en_US dc.description.tableofcontents TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments i Abstract ii TABLE OF CONTENTS iv List of Figures vi Chapter 1: Introduction 1 Chapter 2: Literature Review 18 Chapter 3: Data Analysis 28 Chapter 4: Conclusions 40 References 46 zh_TW dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0106926022 en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) 尼加拉瓜 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 移民 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 推拉 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 社會經濟因素 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) Nicaragua en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) migration en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) push and pull en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) socioeconomic factors en_US dc.title (題名) 21 世紀初尼加拉瓜的移民：2001-2020 zh_TW dc.title (題名) Migration in Nicaragua in the early 21st century: 2001-2020 en_US dc.type (資料類型) thesis en_US dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) References Abel, G. J., Brottrager, M., Crespo Cuaresma, J., & Muttarak, R. (2019). Climate, conflict and forced migration. Global Environment Change, 239-249. Apodaca, C. (1998, January 1). Human Rights Abuses: Precursor to Refugee Flight? Journal of Refugee Studies, 11(1), 80-93. Asamblea Nacional de Nicaragua. (2020, February 11). Normas Juridicas de Nicaragua. Retrieved from SOBRE LA APLICACIÓN DE LOS SALARIOS MÍNIMOS APROBADOS POR LA COMISIÓN NACIONAL DE SALARIO MÍNIMO: http://legislacion.asamblea.gob.ni/Normaweb.nsf/3133c0d121ea3897062568a1005e0f89/08484716fe442fcd0625850300563bd4?OpenDocument Banco Centroamericano de Integración Económica. (2018). Estrategia de pais Nicaragua 2018-2022. Tegucigalpa: Banco Centroamericano de Integración Económica. Baumeister, E. (2006). Migración interanacional y desarollo de Nicaragua. Santiago de Chile: CELADE. Baumeister, E., Fernández, E., & Acuña, G. (2008). Estudio sobre las migraciones regionales de los nicaragüenses. Guatemala: Editorial de Ciencias Sociales. Brzoska, M., & Fröhlich, C. (2016). Climate change, migration and violent conflict: vulnerabilities, pathways and adaption strategies. Migration and Development, 190-220. Burrows, K., & Kinney, P. L. (2016). Exploring the Climate Change, Migration and Conflict Nexus. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. CIA . (2022, December 21). Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Factbook: https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/about/archives/2022/countries/nicaragua/ Clark, W. A., & Maas, R. (2015). Interpreting Migration Through the Prism of Reasons for Moves . Population, Space and Place, 54-67. Clemens, M. A. (2014). Does Development Reduce Migration? In R. E. Lucas, International Handbook on Migration and Economic Development. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Publishing. DaVanzo, J. (1978). Does Unemployment Affect Migration? Evidence from Micro Data. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 60(4), 504-514. Davenport, C., Moore, W., & Poe, S. (2003). Sometime You Just Have to Live: Domestic Threats and Forced Migration, 1964-1989. International Interactions, 27-55. EFE. (2022, November 18). Perspectiva económica de Nicaragua es favorable, según una misión del FMI. Retrieved from Revista Summa: https://revistasumma.com/perspectiva-economica-de-nicaragua-es-favorable-segun-una-mision-del-fmi/ EY. (2023, February 27). Nicaragua| Salario Mínimo para el año 2023. Retrieved from EY: https://www.ey.com/es_cr/tax/tax-alerts/nicaragua-salario-minimo-para-el-ano-2023 EY Law. (2020). Costa Rica | Aumento Salarial Sector Privado año 2020. Retrieved from EY Law: https://assets.ey.com/content/dam/ey-sites/ey-com/es_cr/topics/tax/aumento-salarial-sector-privado.pdf?download Flores Bermúdez, A., & Robles, F. (2022, December 27). In Record Numbers, an Unexpected Migrant Group Is Fleeing to the U.S. Retrieved from The New York Times: https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/27/world/americas/nicaragua-us-migration.html IndexMundi. (2021, September 18). Fact Book-Countries-Nicaragua. Retrieved from IndexMundi: https://www.indexmundi.com/nicaragua/#Introduction Instituto Nacional de Información de Desarrollo. (2020). INIDE informa sobre el valor de la Canasta Básica- Marzo 2020. Retrieved from INIDE: https://www.inide.gob.ni/Home/canasta Integral Human Development. (2022, February). Nicaragua-Country Profile. Retrieved from Integral Human Development : https://migrants-refugees.va/country-profile/nicaragua/ International Monetary Fund. (2020). World Economic Outlook: The Great Lockdown. Washington, DC: International Monetary Fund, Publication Services. International Monetary Fund. (2023). 2022 ARTICLE IV CONSULTATION—PRESS RELEASE; STAFF REPORT; AND STATEMENT BY THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR FOR NICARAGUA. Washington: International Monetary Fund Publication Services. International Organization for Migration. (n.d.). About Migration. Retrieved from International Organization for Migration: https://www.iom.int/about-migration International Trade Administration. (2022, August 12). Country Commercial Guides Nicaragua - Market Overview. Retrieved from International Trade Administration: https://www.trade.gov/country-commercial-guides/nicaragua-market-overview Krishnakumar, P., & Indumathi, T. (2014). PULL AND PUSH FACTORS OF MIGRATION. Global Management Review, 8(4), 8-13. Langan, M., & Price, S. (2021). Migration, development and EU free trade deals: the paradox of Economic Partnership Agreements as a push factor for migration. Global Affairs, 505-521. Larson, E. M. (1993). Nicaraguan Refugees in Costa Rica from 1980-1993. Yearbook (Conference of Latin Americanist Geographers), 67-79. Lee, E. S. (1966). A Theory of Migration. Demography, 3(1), 47-57. Marks, S. (2023, March 17). Nicaragua on the Brink: Protests, Elections, and Mass Atrocity. Retrieved from Georgetown Journal of International Affairs: https://gjia.georgetown.edu/2023/03/17/nicaragua-on-the-brink-protests-elections-and-mass-atrocity/ Martínez Largaespada, A. (2003). Nicaragüenses en Ciudad de Guatemala : una aproximación a la identidad nacional. Guatemala: Maestría en Ciencias Sociales, FLASCO, Programa Centroamericano de Postgrado. Nagel, C., & Boyle, P. (2020). Migration. In A. Kobayashi, & Elsevier (Firm), International Encyclopedia of Human Geography (Second Edition) (pp. 81-88). Amsterdam: Elsevier. Petro Larrota, C. F., & Calle Echeverry, D. (2019, September 10). Súbditos de diferentes tiranos: Las migraciones nicaragüenses tras la Revolución Sandinista. Retrieved from Univesidad del Rosario : https://urosario.edu.co/en/node/15411 Ripley III, C. G. (2023, April 19). Crisis provoca emigración récord desde Nicaragua, superando los niveles de la Guerra Fría. Retrieved from Migration Policy Insitute: https://www.migrationpolicy.org/article/crisis-provoca-emigracion-record-desde-nicaragua Sørensen, N. N. (2013). Central American migration, remittances and transnational development. In D. Sanchez-Ancochea, & S. Martí i Puig, Handbook of Central American Governance (pp. 45-58). London: Routledge. Sausner, E. B., & Webster, N. (2017). Migration and Community Resilience in Nicaraguan Afro-Caribbean Coastal Communities. Journal of Developing Societies - Sage Journals, 484-507. Stimson, R. J., & Minnery, J. (1998). Why People Move to the `Sun-belť: A Case Study of Long-distance Migration to the Gold Coast, Australia. Urban Studies, 35, 193-214. Stobierski, T. (2021, June 8). WHAT IS GDP & WHY IS IT IMPORTANT? Retrieved from Harvard Business School: https://online.hbs.edu/blog/post/why-is-gdp-important The Information Architects of Encyclopaedia Britannica. (n.d.). Nicaragua: Facts & Stats. Retrieved from Britannica: https://www.britannica.com/facts/Nicaragua The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD). (n.d.). Non-ODA flows to developing countries: Remittances. Retrieved from The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD): https://www.oecd.org/dac/financing-sustainable-development/development-finance-standards/beyond-oda-remittances.htm The World Bank. (2018). Moving for Prosperity: Global Migration and Labor Markets. Washington, DC: World Bank Publications. The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP (current US$) - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.CD?end=2021&locations=NI&start=1990 The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP growth (annual %) - Costa Rica. Retrieved from The World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2020&locations=CR&start=2001 The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP growth (annual %) - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2020&locations=NI&start=2001 The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP Growth (annual %) - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2021&locations=NI&start=1991 The World Bank. (n.d.). GDP growth (annual %) - United States. Retrieved from The World Bank: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG?end=2020&locations=US&start=2001 The World Bank. (n.d.). Glossary | DataBank - Net Migration. Retrieved from The World Bank: https://databank.worldbank.org/metadataglossary/population-estimates-and-projections/series/SM.POP.NETM The World Bank. (n.d.). GNI per capita, Atlas method (current US$) - Nicaragua, Latin America & Caribbean (excluding high income), North America. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD?end=2021&locations=NI-XJ-XU&most_recent_value_desc=false&start=1962&view=chart The World Bank. (n.d.). Net Migration - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SM.POP.NETM?locations=NI The World Bank. (n.d.). Personal remittances, received (% of GDP) - Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/BX.TRF.PWKR.DT.GD.ZS?locations=NI The World Bank. (n.d.). Unemployment, total (% of total labor force) (modeled ILO estimate)- Nicaragua. Retrieved from The World Bank Data: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SL.UEM.TOTL.ZS?contextual=default&locations=NI Ton, G. (2000). Seasonal migration and peasant livelihood strategies: migration of Nicaraguan smallholders to Costa Rica. In R. Ruben, & J. Bastiaensen, Rural Development in Central America: Markets, Livelihoods, and Local Governance (pp. 210-227). MacMillan Press; St. Martin`s Press. United Nations. (2022, December 15). UN rights chief reports on intensified `climate of oppression` in Nicaragua. Retrieved from UN News: https://news.un.org/en/story/2022/12/1131757 University of Texas at Austin. (2005). Gini Definition. Retrieved from Law and Democracy in Latin America: https://www.laits.utexas.edu/lawdem/unit03/reading2/Gini_definition.html Vivas Viachica, E. A. (2007). Migración interna en Nicaragua: descropción actualizada e implicaciones de política, con ènfasis en el flujo rural-urbano. Santiago de Chile: CEPAL. Yarris, K. E. (2014). “Quiero ir y no quiero ir” (I Want to Go and I Don’t Want to Go): Nicaraguan Children’s Ambivalent Experiences of Transnational Family Life. The Journal of Latin American and Caribbean Anthropology, 284-309. zh_TW
