大學生逆境經驗及其相關因素之研究

Publications-Theses

Article View/Open

pdf(1161)pdf(1119)pdf(1472)pdf(1076)pdf(2046)pdf(6216)pdf(1441)pdf(1326)pdf(1193)pdf(3290)pdf(3189)

Publication Export

Google Scholar^TM

題名	大學生逆境經驗及其相關因素之研究
作者	蔡雅如
貢獻者	吳靜吉蔡雅如
關鍵詞	樂觀調節焦點情緒調節逆境經驗恢復力創造力
日期	2004
上傳時間	17-Sep-2009 15:09:12 (UTC+8)
摘要	本研究旨在探討大學生的樂觀、調節焦點、情緒調節、逆境經驗與恢復力、創造力之關係。以台灣地區公私立1033位大學生為研究對象，其中男生450位，女生583位。研究工具包括逆境感受量表、逆境因應量表、逆境意義建構量表、樂觀傾向量表、調節焦點量表、情緒調節量表、自我恢復力量表、創新行為量表、創造力自我效能量表。研究中使用單因子變異數分析、皮爾遜積差相關、多元迴歸分析、典型相關等統計方式進行資料之分析。研究發現陳述如下：一、大學生還算樂觀，同時具有求成與避敗的調節焦點，還算同意使用重新評估與沈著冷靜之策略以調節情緒，也有一點壓抑情緒的傾向，面臨逆境時還算符合徬徨無助、丟臉憤怒之感受，還算能用積極處理和調適轉移的策略因應逆境，也還算能從逆境中建構積極信念和領悟磨練之意義。二、樂觀與逆境感受(N=1033, r=-.320)呈顯著負相關，而與逆境因應(N=1033, r=.558)、意義建構(N=1033, r=.572)呈顯著正相關。三、調節焦點的求成取向與逆境因應(N=1033, r=.316)及意義建構(N=1033, r=.400)呈顯著正相關；避敗取向與逆境感受(N=1033, r=.266)、逆境因應中的消極處理(N=1033, r=.193)呈顯著正相關。四、情緒調節的重新評估與逆境因應(N=1033, r=.339)、意義建構(N=1033, r=.407)呈顯著正相關；壓抑與逆境因應中的消極處理(N=1033, r=.118)呈顯著正相關；沉著冷靜與逆境感受(N=1033, r=-.168)呈顯著負相關，與逆境因應(N=1033, r=.430)及意義建構(N=1033, r=.428)呈顯著正相關。五、逆境感受與恢復力(N=1033, r=-.255)、創新行為(N=1033, r=-.156)、創造力自我效能(N=1033, r=-.184)呈顯著負相關；逆境因應與恢復力(N=1033, r=.327)、創新行為(N=1033, r=.366)、創造力自我效能(N=1033, r=.362)呈顯著正相關；逆境意義建構與恢復力(N=1033, r=.338)、創新行為(N=1033, r=.314)、創造力自我效能(N=1033, r=.306)呈顯著正相關。六、樂觀中的正向結果預期和勇於面對挫折、求成取向的調節焦點、沈著冷靜的情緒調節與調適轉移的逆境因應策略對恢復力有正向預測力，而避敗取向的調節焦點與徬徨無助的逆境感受對恢復力有負向預測力；勇於面對挫折、求成取向、沈著冷靜與積極處理的因應策略對創新行為有正向預測力，而避敗取向與徬徨無助對創新行為有負向預測力；正向結果預期、勇於面對挫折、求成取向、沈著冷靜與積極處理對創造力自我效能有正向預測力，而避敗取向與徬徨無助對創造力自我效能有負向預測力。最後根據本研究結果對教學與輔導實務及未來研究提出建議。
參考文獻	中文部分：丁明潔（2003）。國中生樂觀 /悲觀傾向、課業壓力評估、課業壓力因應方式與學校生活適應之相關研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。大辭典編纂委員會（1985）。大辭典（初版）。臺北市：三民。李澄賢（2004）。大學生情緒調節、調節焦點、樂觀與創造力之關係。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。李毓娟（1996）。大學生的心理經驗及其相關因素之研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。林千雅（2001）。心臟衰竭病患希望不確定感與社會支持之探討。國立陽明大學臨床護理研究所碩士論文。林俊雄（2001）。台灣地區連鎖加盟事業經營管理者逆境因應與工作滿足、組織承諾相關研究。私立大葉大學事業經營研究所碩士論文。林麗雪（2005 2月25日）。校園自殺人數遽增年齡下降。民生報。A2版。吳英璋（2000）。災後的心理反應及復原歷程。學生輔導雙月刊，66，頁28-35。吳振賢（1997）。大學生之希望概念及其相關因素之研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。吳靜吉（1991）。樂觀量表簡介。未出版。吳靜吉、李澄賢（2003）。樂觀量表的建立。未出版。吳靜吉、郭俊賢、王文中、劉鶴龍、陳淑惠和李慧賢（1996）。創新行為量表之編制與修訂。未出版。施惠琪（2002）。成人超越逆境之分析研究。國立暨南國際大學成人與繼續教育研究所碩士論文。徐政舜（2004）。逆境向上學生成長經驗之個案研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。孤草（2002）。逆境心理學。高雄：宏文。莊英祺（譯）（1997）。AQ：逆境商數。（原著者：Stoltz P.）。台北：時報。（原著初版年：1988）。夏征農（主編）（1992）。辭海（初版）。臺北市：台灣東華。陳免（2003）。登上人生高峰的最後一堂課。商業周刊，143，頁140-155。陳怡霏（2004）。逆境商數與成就動機、工作績效關係之研究。國立台灣科技大學企業管理系研究所碩士論文。陳淑蓉（2003）。幽默感對可能壓力事件及負向生活事件的認知評估、情緒反應之影響。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。陳澄和（譯）（1994）。如何重建人生：驚變與挫折之後（原著者：Cramer, K. D.）。台北：時報。（原著初版年：1990）。張美惠（譯）（1996）。情緒商數。(原著者：G oleman, D.)。臺北：時報。（原著初版年：1994）。郭靜晃、吳幸玲（譯）（1994）。發展心理學。（原著者：Philip, R. & Barbara, N.）。臺北：揚智。（原著初版年：1975）。游恆山（譯）（2003）。壓力與創傷。（原著者：Resick, P. A.）。台北：五南。（原著初版年：2001）。黃得時，柯遜添，台灣商務印書管編審部（1974）。辭源（第四版）。台北市：台灣商務。傅佩榮（譯）（2001）。創造勇氣。（原著者：May, R.）。臺北：立緒。（原著初版年：1969）。曾敬梅（2002）。玩興、幽默、創意態度、創意氛圍與創造力之關係。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。齊思賢（譯）（2002）。奇葩與怪傑：時代、價值觀和關鍵時刻如何塑造領袖。（原著者：Bennis W. & Thomas R.）。台北：時報。（原著初版年：2001）。劉佩雲（1989）。性別、創造力、自我檢校與幽默感的關係。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。廣東、廣西、湖南、河南辭源修訂組，商務印書館編輯部（1989）。大陸版辭源（初版）。台北市：台灣商務。糜文開（譯）（2003）。泰戈爾詩集。（原著者：Tagore R.）。三民書局：台北。（原著初版年：1963）。西文部分： Abele, A. E. (2002). Dispositional optimism, unrealistic optimism and memory for more or less self-relevant information. Manuscript submitted for publication. Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned helplessness in human: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abcdrmal Psychology, 87, 49-74. Adler, N. E., & Matthews, K. (1994). Health psychology: Why do some people get sick and some stay well? Annual Review of psychology, 45, 229-259. Aldwin, C. M., Sutton, K. J., & Lachman, M. (1996). The development of coping resources in adulthood. Journal of Personality, 64, 837-871. Allen, L. W. (1997). Strategies that African-American female executives and professionals use to manage adversity in the workplace. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Fielding Institute. Alonzo, A. A. (2000). The experience of chronic illness and post-traumatic stress disorder: The consequences of cumulative adversity. Social Science and Medicine, 50, 1475-1484. Amirkhan, J. H. (1990). A factor analytically derived measure of coping: The coping strategy indicator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1066-1074. Ann, S. M.,＆ Marie-Gabrielle J. S. (2000). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder ＆ S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The Handbook of Positive psychology (74-88). London: Oxford University Press. Anne, G. M. M. (2002). Overcoming adversity: The protective role of locus of control, attributional style, and self-efficacy, in the promotion of resilience. Unpublished masteral dissertation, University of Windsor. Aspinwall, L. G. (2004). Dealing with adversity: Self-regulation, coping, adaptation, and health. In H. Miles & B. B. Marilynn (Eds.), Perspective on social psychology (pp.3-27). Malden, MA, US: Blackwell Publishers. Aspinwall, L. G., & Brunhart, S. (1996). Distinguishing optimism from denial: Optimistic beliefs and behavior. In E. C. Chang (Ed.), Optimism and pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice (pp. 217-238). Washington DC: American Psychological Association. Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1992). Modeling cognitive adaptation: A longitudinal investigation of the impact of individual differences and coping on college adjustment and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 755-765. Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman. Barnum, D. D, Snyder, C. R., Rapoff, M. A., Mani, M. M., & Thampson, R. (1998). Hope and social support in the psychological adjustment of children who have survived burn injuries and their control. Children’s Health Care, 27, 15-30. Barusch, A. M. (1999). Religion, adversity and age: Religions experiences of low-income elderly women. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 26, 125-142. Beardsley, H. A. (2001). Childhood resilience: A developmental model to promote positive outcome despite adversity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology Berkeley/Alameda. Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Kovacs, M., & Garrison, B. (1985). Hopelessness and eventual suicide: A 10-year prospective study of patients hospitalized with suicidal ideation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 559-563. Bernadette, R. J. (2003). The nature of independent adversity in the lives of resilient and maladaptive youth: A comparative analysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota. Block, J. & Kremen, (1996). IQ and Ego-Resiliency: Conceptual and Empirical Connections and Separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 349-361. Block, J. (1982). Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of personality development. Child Development, 53, 281-295. Billings, D. W., Folkman, S., Acree, M., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Coping and physical health during caregiving: The role of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 131-142. Bonanno, G. A., Field, N. P., Kovacevic, A., & Kaltman, S. (2002). Self-enhancement as a buffer against extreme adversity: Civil war in Bosnia and traumatic loss in the United States. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 184-196. Brehm, J. W. (1966). Resopense to loss of freedom: A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Acsdemic Press. Brody, L. R. (2000). The socialization of gender differences in emotional expression: Display rules, infant temperament, and differentiation. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 24-27). New York: Cambridge University Press. Carver, C. S., Harris, S. D., Noriega, V., Pozo, C., Robinson, D. S., Ketcham, A. S., Moffat F. L., Clark, K. C., Scheier, M. F. (1993). How coping mediates the effect of optimism on distress: A study of women with early stage breast cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 375-390. Carver, S. C.,＆ Scheier, M. F.（1998）On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press. Carver, S. C.,＆ Scheier, M. F.（2002）Optimism. In C. R. Snyder ＆ S. J. Lopez（Eds.）, The Handbook of Positive psychology (pp.231-243). London: Oxford University Press. Carver, S. C., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of personality and social psychology, 56, 267-283. Chao-Ming, L. (2003). Adversity response profile of Eastern and Western university leaders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Dakota. Chen, X., Tyler, K. A., Whitbeck, L. B., & Hoyt, D. R. (2004). Early sexual abuse, street adversity, and drug use among female homeless and runway adolescents in the midwest. Journal of Drug Issues, 34, 1-21. Coat, E. J., Janoff-Bulman, R., & Alpert, N. (1996). Approach versus avoidance goals : Differences in self-evaluation and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1057-1067. Collins, R., Taylor, S., & Skokan, L. (1990). A better world or a shattered vision? Changes in life perspectives following victimization. Social Cognition, 8, 263-285. Copper, M. L., Shaver, P. R., & Collins, N. L. (1998). Attachment styles, emotion regulation, and adjustment in adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1380-1397. Costa. P. T. Jr., & McCrae. R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources. Cozzarelli, C. (1993). Personality and self-efficacy as predictors of coping with abortion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1224-1236. Criss, M. M., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., & Lapp, A. L. (2002). Family adversity, positive peer relationships, and children’s externalizing behavior: A longitudinal perspective on risk and resilience. Child Development, 73, 1220-1237. Davey, M., Eaker, D. G., & Walter, L. H. (2003). Resilience Process in Adolescents: Personality Profiles, Self-Worth, and Coping. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18, 347-362. DeStone, D., & Salovey, P. (1997). Structural dynamism in the concept of self: A flexible model for a malleable concept. Review of General Psychology, 1, 389-409. Diamond, L. M., & Aspinwall, L. G. (2003). Emotion regulation across the life span: An integrative perspective emphasizing self-regulation, positive affect, and dyadic processes. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 125-156. Diane, W. C. (2000). Pathways of thriving and resilience: Growth responses to adversity and trauma in two Cambodian communities. A comparative study between Lowell, Massachusetts and Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Unpublished masteral dissertation, University of Massachusetts Lowell. Dohrenwend, B. P. (2000). The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology: Some evidence and its implications for theory and research. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 1-19. Doucet, J. (2002). Linking childhood family adversity to the timing and quality of intimate relationships in adolescence and early adulthood. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University. Doucet, J., Aseltine, R. H. Jr. (2003). Childhood family adversity and the quality of marital relationships in young adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20, 818-842. Downey, J. A. (2002). Perspectives on educational resilience from children facing adversity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado. Durbin, C. E., Klein, D. N., & Schwartz, J. E. (2000). Predicting the 2-sup-1/-sub-2-year outcome of dysthymic disorder: The role of childhood adversity and family history of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 57-63. Dweck, C., & Wortman, C. B. (1980). Achievement, text anxiety and learned helplessness: Adaptive and maladaptive congitions. In H. W. Krohne & L. Laux (Eds.), Achievement, stress and anxiety. Washington, D. C.: Hemisphere. Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461-475. Elliot, A. J., Sheldom, K. M., & Church, M. A. (1997). Avoidance personal goals and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 70, 23, 915-927. Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality of social function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 136-157. Emmons, R., & Kaiser, H. (1996). Goal orientation and emotional well-being: Linking goals and affect through self. In L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling:Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp,79-98). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbuam. Erika, S. G. (1999). A comparison of adversity response scores: Education leaders and business and industry leaders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northern Arizona University. Eubanks, G. K. (2002). Overcoming adversity: Narrative construction in autobiographies of border crossings (Elaine, Mar, Richard Rodriguez, Henry Louis Gates, Jr.). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cleveland State University. Fabes, R. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1997). Regulatory control in adults’ stress-related responses to daily life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1107-1117. Fawzy, F. I., Fawzy , N. W., Hyun, C. S., Elashoff, R., Guthrie, D., et al. (1993). Malignant melanoma: Effects of an early structured psychiatric intervention, coping, and affective state on recurrence and survival 6 years later. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 681-689. Ferguson, D. M., & Horwood, LJ. (2003). Resilience to childhood adversity: Results of a 12- year study. In S. S. Luthar (Ed), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp.130-155). New York: Cambridge University Press. Ferguson, K. S. (2002). Pathways to adaptive and maladaptive behavior in schoolaged children exposed to family adversity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas. Fitzgerald, T. E., Tennen, H., Affleck, G., & Pransky, G. S. (1993). The relative importance of dispositional optimism and control appraisals in quality of life after coronary artery bypass surgery. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 16, 25-43. Folkman, S. (1997). Positive psychological states and coping with severe stress. Social Science and Medicine, 45, 1207-1221. Folkman, S., Chesney, M. A., & Christopher-Richards, A. (1994). Stress and coping in caregiving partners of man with AIDS. In L. Zegans & T. J. Coates (Eds.), Diagnosis and management of psychiatric manifestations of HIV disease. Philadelphia: Saunders. Folkman, S. & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239. Folkman, S. & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 150-170. Fontaine, K. R., Manstead A. S. R., & Wagner, H. (1993). Optimism, perceived control over stress, and coping. European Journal of personality, 7, 267-281. Forest, K. B. (1991). The interplay of childhood stress and adult life events on women’s symptoms of depression. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(9), 3237A. Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Washington Square Press. Frankl, V. E. (1984). Man’s search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy (Rev. ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster. Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300-319. Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden–and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226. Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What Good Are Positive Emotion in Crises？A Prospective Study of Resilience and Emotion Following the Terrorist Attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365-376. Gana, K. (2001). Is sense of coherence a mediator between adversity and psychological well-being in adult? Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investignation of Stress, 17, 77-83. Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416-430. Garmezy, N. (1993). Children in poverty: Resilience despite risk. Psychiatry, 56, 127-136. Garmezy, N., Mastern, A. S., & Tellegen. A.(1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Developmental, 55, 97-111. Gartside, S. E., Johnson, D. A., Leitch, M. M., Claire, T, & Ingram, C. D. (2003) Early life adversity programs changes in central 5-HT neuronal function in adulthood. European Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 2401-2408. Gass, K. A., & Chang, A. S. (1989). Appraisal of bereavement, coping resources, and psychosocial health dysfunction in widows and widowers. Nursing Research, 38, 31-36. Geers, A. L., Handley, I. M., & McLarney, A. R. (2003). Discerning the role of optimism in persuasion: The valence-enhancement hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 554-565. George, J. M., & Zhou, J. (2002). Understanding when bad moods foster creativity and good ones don’t: The role of context and clarity of feelings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 687-697. Gibson, C. L., Piquero, A. R., & Tibbetts, S. G. (2001). The contribution of family adversity and verbal IQ to criminal behavior. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45, 574-593. Given, C. W., Stommel, M., Given, B., Osuch, J., Kurtz, M. E., et al. (1993). The influence of cancer patients’ symptoms and functional states on patients’ depression and family caregivers’ reaction and depression. Health Psychology, 12, 277-285. Glant, M. D., & Johnson, J. L. (Eds.). (1999). Resilience and development: Positive life adaptation. New York: Plenum. Glenn, A.,＆ Howard T.（1996）Construing Benefits from Adversity: Adaptational Significance and Dispositional Underpinnings. Journal of Personality, 64, 899-922. Goebert, D. A., Bell, C. K., Hishinuma, E. S., Nahulu, L. B., Johnson, R. C., et al. (2004). Influence of family adversity on school-related behavioral problems among multi-ethnic high school students. School Psychology International, 25, 193-206. Greenberg, L. S., Rice L. N., & Elliott, R. (1993). Facilitating emotional change: The moment to moment process. New York: Guildford. Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224-237. Gross, J. J. & John P. O. (1998). Mapping the domain of emotional expressivity: Multi-method evidence for a hierarchical model. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74, 170-191. Gross, J. J. & John P. O. (2003). Individual difference in two emotion regulation process: implication for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 85,348-362. Gross, J. J. & Levenson, R. W. (1993). Emotional suppression: Physiology, self-report, and expressive behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 64, 970-986. Gross, J. J. & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting positive and negative emotion. Journal of Abcdrmal Psychology, 106, 95-103. Harkness, K. L., & Wildes, J. E. (2002). Childhood adversity and anxiety versus dysthymia co-morbidity in major depression. Psychological Medicine, 32, 1239-1249. Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 55, 1280-1300. Higgins, E. T. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 1-46. Higgins, E. T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55, 1217-1230. Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 515-525. Hill, S. A. J., Hugo, P., Hughes, P., Fonagy, p., & Hartman, D. (2002). Adolescents murderers: Abuse and adversity in childhood. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 221-230. Hirt, E. R., McDonald, H. E., & Melton, R. J. (1996). Processing goals and the after- performance link: Mood as main effect or mood as input? In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 303-328). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Hobfoll, S. E. (1985a). The limitations of social support in the stress process. In I. G. Sarason & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Social support: Theory, research, and application (pp. 391-414). The Hague, The Netherlands: Nijhoff. Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513-524. Hobfoll, S. E., Johnson, R. J., Ennis, N., & Jackson, A. P. (2003). Resource loss, resource gain, and emotion outcomes among inner city women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 632-643. Hobfoll, S. E., & Lilly, R. (1993). Resource conservation as a strategy for community psychology. Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 128-148. Hojat, M., Gonnela, J. S., Erdmann, J. B., & Vogel, W. H. (2003). Medical students’ cognitive appraisal of stressful life events as related to personality, physical well-being, and academic performance: A longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 219-235. Holaday, M., & McPhearson, R. W. (1997). Resilience and severe burns. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 346-356. Hornby, A. S. (Ed.). (1983). The Advanced learner`s dictionary of English (2nd ed). Taipei: Dong Hua. Hudson, P. (2004). The impact of Alcoholics Anonymous membership, spiritual awareness, and commitment effort on alcohol-problem adversity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Walden University. Irwin, L. G., Thorne, S., & Varcoe, C. (2002). Strength in adversity: Motherhood for women who have been battered. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 34, 47-57. Janoff-Bulman, R., & Frieze, I. H. (1991). A theoretical perspective for understanding reactions to victimization. Journal of Social Issues, 39, 1-17. Janoff-Bulman, R., & Schwartzberg, S. S. (1991). Toward a general model of personal change. In. C. R. Synder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of Social and Clinical psychology: The Health Perspective (pp.488-508). New York: Pergamon. Jerilee, G.（1999）.Response to Adversity and Personality Structure: A Model-Generating Study of College Students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Union Institute. Juon, H. S., Ensminger, M. E., & Feehan, M. (2003). Childhood adversity and later morality in an urban African American cohort. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 2044-2046. Justin, T. (1996). Characteristics of regulatory environment and impact on entrepreneurial strategic orientation: An empirical study of Chinese private entrepreneurs. Academy of Management Proceedings, 69,106-110. Kahn, R. L. (1991). Retention, resilience, and enhancement: Components of vitality throughout the life course. Course paper presented at the meeting of the MacArthur Foundation Successful Aging Program, San Francisco. Kanter, R. (1988). When a thousand flowers bloom: Structural, collective, and social conditions for innovation in organization. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, vol 10: 169-211. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press. Kaufmann, G., & Vosburg, S. K., (1997). ‘‘Paradoxical’’ mood effects on creative problem- solving. Cognition & Emotion, 11, 151-170. Kendler, K. S., Gardner, CO., & Prescott, CA. (2003). Personality and the experience of environmental adversity. Psychological Medicine, 33, 1193-1202. Killoran, M., Schlitz, M. J., & Lewis, N. (2002). ‘‘Unremarkable’’ recoveries: Normalizing adversity and cancer survival. Qualitative Health Research, 12, 208-222. Klinger, E. (1975). Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives. Psychological Review, 82, 1-25. Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people’s lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1-11. Kuiper, N. A., Sibenik, B. Melanie. (2005). A good sense of humor doesn’t always help: agency and communion as moderators of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 365-378. Kerkkanen, P., Kuiper, N. A., Martin, R. A. (2004). A sense of humor, physical health, and well-being at work: A three-year longitudinal study of Finnish police officers. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 17, 21-36. Lazarus, R. S. (1981). The costs and benefits of denial. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 503-516. Lazarus, R. S., & Alfert, E. (1964). Short-circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal. Journal of Abcdrmal and Social psychology, 69, 195-205. Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company. Leslie, H. K. (1998). Stress sensitization and the relationship between life events, childhood adversity, depression history, and symptom heterogeneity in major depression. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon. Lewis, H., & Kloewer, W. (1996). Hope, coping, and adjustment among children with sickle cell disease: Tests of mediator and moderator models. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 21, 25-41. Lewis, T. T. (2003). A lifetime of stress: Chronic burden, childhood adversity and disease progression in women infected with HIV. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles. Linda, M. (1999). Hope, coping, and adjustment among family members of individuals with obsessive compulsive disorder. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida. Linley, P. A., Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 11-21. Lipowski, Z. J. (1970). Physical illness and the coping processes. Psychiatry in Medicine, 1, 91-102. Litt, M. D., Tennen, H., Affleck, G., & Klock, S. (1992). Coping and cognitive factors in adaptation to in vitro fertilization failure. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 171-187. Little, B. (1989). Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, magnificent obsessions, and the search for coherence. In D. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 15-31). New York: Springer-Verlag. Lockwood, P., Jordan, G. H., & Kunda, Z. (2002). Motivation by positive or negative role models: regulatory focus determines who will best inspire us. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 83, 854-864. Lumley, M. N. (2003). Childhood adversity, early maladaptive schemas, and anxious versus anhedonic symptom expression in adolescence. Unpublished masteral dissertation, Queen’s University at Kingston. (Canada). Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc. Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969. Martin, L. L., & Stoner, P. (1996). Mood as input: What we think about how we feel determines how we think. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 279-301). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum. Mastern, A. S. (1989). Resilience in development: Implications of the study of successful adaptation for developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), The emergence of a discipline: Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology (Vol. 1, pp.261-294). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Inc. Mastern, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes development. American Psychologist, 56, 227-238. Masterm, A. S., & Best, K. M. & Garmezy, N.(1990). Resilience and development: Contribution from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and psychopathology, 2, 425-444. Mastern, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environment: Lessons from successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205-220. Mastern, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., et al. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143-169. May, R. (1980). Value conflicts and anxiety. In I. L. Kutash & L. B. Schlesinger (Eds.), Handbook on stress and anxiety (pp. 241-248). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. McAdams, D. P. (1985). Power, intimacy, and the life story: Personological inquiries into identity. Chicago: Dorsey Press. McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5,100-122. McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690-702. McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr., (1986). Personality, coping, and coping effectiveness in an adult sample. Journal of Personality, 54, 385-405. McMullen, M. N., & Markman, K. D. (2000). Downward counterfactuals and motivation: The wake-up call and the Pangloss effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 575-584. Miller, I. W. & Norman, W. H. (1979). Learned helplessness in humans: A review and attribution theory model. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 93-118. Miller, M. C. (2001). Life mastery through adversity. [ on-line ] Available: http://www.nureshealer.com/ Adversity.htm. Miller, S. M. (1987). Monitoring and blunting: Validation of a questionnaire to assess styles of information seeking under threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 345-353. Moffitt, K., & Singer, J. (1994). Continuity in the life story: Self-defining memories, affect, and approach/avoidance personal strivings. Journal of Personality, 62, 21-43. Morris, W. (1973). The American heritage dictionary of the English language. Boston: American Heritage Publishing Company. Morris, L. W., & Engle, W. B. (1981). Assessing various coping strategies and their effects on test performance and anxiety. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 165-171. Murphy, L. B., & Moriarty, A. E. (1976). Vulnerability, coping, and growth: From infancy to adolescence. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and distress following a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 105-121. Norem, J. K., & Cantor, N. (1986). Defensive pessimism: ‘‘Harness’’ anxiety as motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1208-1217. Oldham, G. R., & Cummings, A. (1996). Employee creativity: Personal and contextual factors at work. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 607-634. O’Leary, V. E. (1998). Strength in the Face of Adversity: Individual and Social Thriving. Journal of Social Issues, 54, 425-446. O’Leary, V. E. & Ickovics, J. R. (1995). Resilience and thriving in response to challenge: An opportunity for a paradigm shift in women’s health. Women’s Health: Research on Gender, Behavior, and Policy, 1, 121-142. Paris, R., & Bradley, C. L. (2001). The challenge of adversity: Three narratives of alcohol dependence, recovery, and adult development. Qualitative Health Research, 11, 647 -667. Park, C. L., Cohen, L. H., & Murch, R. L. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress-related growth. Journal of Personality, 64, 71-105. Park, C. L., Moore, P. J., Turner, R. A., & Adler, N. E. (1997). The role of constructive thinking and optimism in psychological and behavioral adjustment during pregnancy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 584-592. Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Opening up: The healing power of emotional expression. New York: Guilford Press. Peterson, K. (1997). Success in the face of adversity: Six stories of minority career achievement. In H. S. Farmer (Ed), Diversity & women’s career development: From adolescence to adulthood (pp.172-186). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc. Philip, H. M. (2003). Psychological resilience: The influence of positive and negative life events upon optimism, hope, and perceived locus of control. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Walden University. Porter, L. S., Marco, C. A., Schwartz, J. E., & Neale, J. M. (2000). Gender differences in coping: A comparison of trait and momentary assessments. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 480-498. Porter, L. S., & Stone, A. A. (1995). Are there really gender differences in coping? A reconsideration of previous data and results from a daily study. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14, 184-200. Price, R. H., Choi, J. N., & Vinokur, A. D. (2002). Links in the chain of adversity following job loss: How financial strain and loss of personal control lead to depression, impaired functioning, and poor health. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7, 302-312. Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R. E., & Zanas J. (1992). Gender, appraisal, and coping: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality, 60, 746-770. Ray, O. (2004). How the mind hurts and heals the body. American Psychologist, 59, 29-40. Rime, B., Philippot, P., Boca, S., & Mesquita, B. (1992). Long-lasting cognitive and social consequences of emotion: Social sharing and rumination. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology, vol. 3, 225-258. New York: Wiley. Robbie G.（2000）Adversity, Resilience and Young People: the Protective Value of Positive School and Spare Time Experiences. Children & Society, 14,37-47. Roberson, L. (1990). Prediction of job satisfaction from characteristics of personal work goals. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 29-41. Robert, M. C., Brown, K. J., Johnson, R. J., & Reinke, J. (2002). Development, Prevention, and Promotion. In C. R. Snyder ＆ S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The Handbook of Positive psychology (663-675). London: Oxford University Press. Robinson, F. W. (2001). Adversity, crisis counseling, and the openness of God: An evaluation of open theism for pastoral response to victims of violence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Azusa Pacific University. Rodin, J., & Salovey, P.(1989). Health psychology. Annual Review of psychology, 40, 533-579. Roth, S. (1980). A revised model of learned hopelessness in humans. Journal of Personality, 48, 103-113. Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J. R., & Snyder, S. S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: a two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 5-37. Rotter, J. B. (1990). Internal versus external control of reinforcement: A case history of a variable. American Psychologist, 45, 489-493. Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and proactive mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57,316-331. Ryabchenko, K. A. (2004). The role of childhood adversity, cluster B personality disorders and chronic stressors on the perpetuation of depressive symptomatology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton. Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R. (1993). Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence: the influence of social and family risk factor. Child Development, 64, 80-97. Sandler, I. (2001). Quality and ecology of adversity as common mechanisms of risk and resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 19-61. Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 201-208. Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (2001). Adapting to cancer: The importance of hope and purpose. In A. Baum & B. L. Andeson (Eds.), Psychosocial interventions for cancer (pp. 15-36). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Scheier, M. F., Weintraub, J. K., & Carver, C. S. (1986). Coping with stress: Divergent strategies of optimists and pessimists. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 51, 1257-1264. Schmidt, J. A. (1998). Overcoming challenges: Exploring the role of action, experience, and opportunity in fostering resilience among adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Chicago. Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1994). Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 580-607. Segerstrom, S. C. (2001). Optimism and attentional bias for negative and positive stimuli. Personality and Social psychology Bulletin, 27, 1334-1343. Seligman, M. E. P.（1975）Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman. Seligman, M. E. P. (1991). Learned optimism. New York: Knopf. Selye, H. (1976). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill. Shah, J., & Higgins, E. T. (2001). Regulatory concerns and appraisal efficiency: The general impact of promotion and prevention. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 80, 693-705. Shah, J., Higgins, E. T., & Friedman, R. S. (1998). Performance incentives and means: How regulatory focus influences goal attainment. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 80, 285-293. Shek, D. TL., Tang, V., Lam, CM., Lam, MC., Tsoi, KW., et al. (2003). The relationship between Chinese cultural beliefs about adversity and psychological adjustment in Chinese family with economic disadvantage. American Journal of Family Therapy, 31, 427-443. Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Rawsthorne, L. J., & Ilardi, B. (1997). Trait self and true self: Cross-role variation in the Big-Five personality traits and its relations with psychological authenticity and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 73, 1380-1393. Shelley, E. T.,＆ David, A. A.（1996）Positive Illusions and Coping with Adversity. Journal of Personality, 64, 873-898. Shifren, K., & Hooker, K. (1995). Stability and change in optimism: A study among spouse caregivers. Experimental Aging Research, 21, 59-76. Shontz, F. C. (1965). Reactions to crisis. The Volta Review, 67, 364-370. Shontz, F. C. (1975). The psychological aspects of physical illness and disability. New York: Macmillan. Siegel, B. (1986). Love, medicine, and miracles: Lessons learned about self-healing from a surgeon’s experience with exceptional patients. New York: Harper & Row. Siegel, K., & Schrimshaw, E. W. (2000). Perceiving benefits in adversity: Stress-related growth in women living with HIV/AIDS. Social Science and Medicine, 51, 1543-1554. Silver, R. S., & Wortman C. B. (1980). Coping with undesirable life events. In Garber, J. & Seligman, M. P. (Eds.), Human helplessness: Theory and applications (pp.279-340). New York: Academic Press. Silverthorne, J. P. (2002). Adversity in the form of gender discrimination: A collective reflection of ten professional women who experience meaningful work. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University. Singer, J. A., King, L. A., Green, M. C., & Barr, S. C. (2002). Personal identity and civic responsibility: “Rising to the occasion’’ narratives and generativity in community action student interns. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 535-556. Singer, J. A., & Salovey, P. (1993). The remembered self. New York: Free Press. Singer, N. D. (2002). Perceived benefits of medical adversity. Unpublished masteral dissertation, California State University, Long Beach. Skinner, N., & Brewer, N. (2002). The dynamics of treat and challenge appraisals prior to stressful achievement events. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 83, 678-692. Snyder, C. R. (1994). The psychology of hope: You can get there from here. New York: Free Press. Snyder, C. R., & Dinoff, B. L. (1999). Coping where have you been? In C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp.3-19). New York: Oxford University Press. Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A., et al. (1996). Development and validation of the state hope scale. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 70, 321-335. Stairs, D. L. (2003). Defying adversity: A case study of five academically successful adolescents in a low-performing school. Unpublished masteral dissertation, Pacific Lutheran University. Stepper, S., & Strack, F. (1993). Proprioceptive determinants of emotional and nonemotional feeling. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 64, 211-220. Steptoe, A., & Marmot, M. (2003). Burden of psychosocial adversity and vulnerability in middle age: Associations with biobehavioral risk factors and quality of life. Psychosomatic Medicine,65, 1029-1037. Stoltz, P. G. (2000). Adversity Quotient at Work. New York: Morrow. Stone, A. A., & Neale, J. M. (1984). New measure of daily coping: Development and preliminary results. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 46, 892-906. Surtees, P. G., & Wainwright, N. WJ. (1999). Surviving adversity: Event decay, vulnerability and the onset of anxiety and depressive disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 249, 86-95. Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation.. American psychologist, 38, 1161-1173. Taylor, S. E. (1989). Positive illusion: Creative self-deception and the healthy mind. New York: Basic Books. Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193-210. Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., Aspinwall, L. G., Schneider, S. G., Rodriguez, R., & Herbert, M. (1992). Optimism, coping, psychological distress, and high-risk sexual behavior among men at risk for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 63, 460-473. Taylor, S. E., Wood, J. V., & Lichtman, R. R. (1983). It could be worse: Selective evaluation as a response to victimization. Journal of Social Issues, 39, 19-40. Tedeschi, R., Calhoun, L., & Gross, B. (1993). Construing benefits from negative event: An examination of personality variable. Poster presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto. Thompson, S. C. (1981). Will it hurt less if I can control it? A complex answer to a simple question. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 89-101. Thompson, S. C. (1985). Finding positive meaning in a stressful event and coping. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 6, 279-295. Thompson, S. C., Sobolew-Shubin, A., Galbraith, M. E., Schwankovsky, L., & Cruzen, D. (1993). Maintaining perception of control: Finding perceived control in low-control circumstances. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 64, 293-304. Throne, A. (2000). Personal memory telling and personality development. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 45-56. Tierney, P., & Farmer, S. M. (2002). Creative self-efficacy: Its potential antecedents and relationship to creative performance. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 1137-1148. Turner, H. A., & Butler, M. J. (2003). Direct and indirect effect of childhood adversity on depressive symptoms in young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 89-103. Turner, M. E. (2001). The dilemma of threat: Group effectiveness and ineffectiveness under adversity. In M. E. Turner (Ed), Groups at work: Theory and research (pp.445-470). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Association, Publishers. Turner, R. J., & Lloyd, D. A. (2003) Cumulative adversity and drug dependence in young adults: Racial/ethnic contrasts. Addiction, 98, 305-315. Undewood, M. K., Coie, J. D., & Herbsman, C. R. (1992). Display rules for anger and aggression in school-age children. Child Development, 63, 366-380. Van Harte, E. (1995). Thriving in the midst of repression: A South African experiences. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children. New York: McGraw-Hill. Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University. Wholey, D. (1992). When the worst that can happen already has: Conquering life’s most difficult times. New York: Hyperion. Williams, M. W. (2003). The relationship between principal response to adversity and student achievement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cardinal Stritch University. Woike, B. A. (1994a). The use of differentiation and integration processes: Empirical studies of “separate’’ and “connected’’ ways of thinking. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 67, 142-150. Woike, B. A., (1994b). Vivid recollection as a technique to arouse implicit motive related affect. Motivation and emotion, 18, 335-349. Woike, B. A., Gershkovich, I., Piorkowski, R., ＆ Polo, M. (1999). The role of personality motives in the content and structure of autobiographical memories. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 76, 600-612. Woike, B. A., & Matic, D. (2004). Cognitive complexity in response to traumatic experiences. Journal of Personality, 72, 632-657. Woike, B. A., Mcleod, S., & Goggin, M. (2003). Implicit and explicit motives influence accessability to different autobiographical memories. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1046-1055. Wortman, C. B., & Brehm, J. W. (1975). Response to uncontrollable outcomes: An integra- tion of reactance theory and the learned helplessness model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, (vol. 8). New York: Academic Press. Wyman, P. A., & Forbes, J. E. L. (2001). Creative adaptation to life adversity: Deriving meaning from the past and expectations for the future. In T. P., Gullotta & M. Bloom (Ed), Promoting creativity across the life span (pp.157-190). Washington: Child Welfare League of America, Inc.
描述	碩士國立政治大學教育研究所 91152041 93
資料來源	http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0911520412
資料類型	thesis

dc.contributor.advisor	吳靜吉	zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors)	蔡雅如	zh_TW
dc.creator (作者)	蔡雅如	zh_TW
dc.date (日期)	2004	en_US
dc.date.accessioned	17-Sep-2009 15:09:12 (UTC+8)	-
dc.date.available	17-Sep-2009 15:09:12 (UTC+8)	-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間)	17-Sep-2009 15:09:12 (UTC+8)	-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers)	G0911520412	en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI)	https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/33039	-
dc.description (描述)	碩士	zh_TW
dc.description (描述)	國立政治大學	zh_TW
dc.description (描述)	教育研究所	zh_TW
dc.description (描述)	91152041	zh_TW
dc.description (描述)	93	zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要)	本研究旨在探討大學生的樂觀、調節焦點、情緒調節、逆境經驗與恢復力、創造力之關係。以台灣地區公私立1033位大學生為研究對象，其中男生450位，女生583位。研究工具包括逆境感受量表、逆境因應量表、逆境意義建構量表、樂觀傾向量表、調節焦點量表、情緒調節量表、自我恢復力量表、創新行為量表、創造力自我效能量表。研究中使用單因子變異數分析、皮爾遜積差相關、多元迴歸分析、典型相關等統計方式進行資料之分析。研究發現陳述如下：一、大學生還算樂觀，同時具有求成與避敗的調節焦點，還算同意使用重新評估與沈著冷靜之策略以調節情緒，也有一點壓抑情緒的傾向，面臨逆境時還算符合徬徨無助、丟臉憤怒之感受，還算能用積極處理和調適轉移的策略因應逆境，也還算能從逆境中建構積極信念和領悟磨練之意義。二、樂觀與逆境感受(N=1033, r=-.320)呈顯著負相關，而與逆境因應(N=1033, r=.558)、意義建構(N=1033, r=.572)呈顯著正相關。三、調節焦點的求成取向與逆境因應(N=1033, r=.316)及意義建構(N=1033, r=.400)呈顯著正相關；避敗取向與逆境感受(N=1033, r=.266)、逆境因應中的消極處理(N=1033, r=.193)呈顯著正相關。四、情緒調節的重新評估與逆境因應(N=1033, r=.339)、意義建構(N=1033, r=.407)呈顯著正相關；壓抑與逆境因應中的消極處理(N=1033, r=.118)呈顯著正相關；沉著冷靜與逆境感受(N=1033, r=-.168)呈顯著負相關，與逆境因應(N=1033, r=.430)及意義建構(N=1033, r=.428)呈顯著正相關。五、逆境感受與恢復力(N=1033, r=-.255)、創新行為(N=1033, r=-.156)、創造力自我效能(N=1033, r=-.184)呈顯著負相關；逆境因應與恢復力(N=1033, r=.327)、創新行為(N=1033, r=.366)、創造力自我效能(N=1033, r=.362)呈顯著正相關；逆境意義建構與恢復力(N=1033, r=.338)、創新行為(N=1033, r=.314)、創造力自我效能(N=1033, r=.306)呈顯著正相關。六、樂觀中的正向結果預期和勇於面對挫折、求成取向的調節焦點、沈著冷靜的情緒調節與調適轉移的逆境因應策略對恢復力有正向預測力，而避敗取向的調節焦點與徬徨無助的逆境感受對恢復力有負向預測力；勇於面對挫折、求成取向、沈著冷靜與積極處理的因應策略對創新行為有正向預測力，而避敗取向與徬徨無助對創新行為有負向預測力；正向結果預期、勇於面對挫折、求成取向、沈著冷靜與積極處理對創造力自我效能有正向預測力，而避敗取向與徬徨無助對創造力自我效能有負向預測力。最後根據本研究結果對教學與輔導實務及未來研究提出建議。	zh_TW
dc.description.tableofcontents	第一章緒論第一節研究動機與目的………………………………………… 1 第二節研究問題………………………………………………… 8 第三節主要名詞解釋…………………………………………… 10 第二章文獻探討第一節逆境經驗的概念………………………………………… 13 第二節逆境經驗的理論………………………………………… 19 第三節逆境經驗的測量………………………………………… 37 第四節逆境經驗相關研究……………………………………… 45 第五節有效因應逆境經驗措施………………………………… 54 第六節樂觀、調節焦點、情緒調節與逆境經驗之關係……… 58 第七節逆境經驗與恢復力、創造力之關係…………………… 66 第三章研究方法第一節研究架構………………………………………………… 71 第二節研究假設………………………………………………… 73 第三節研究樣本………………………………………………… 76 第四節研究工具………………………………………………… 79 第五節實施程序………………………………………………… 102 第六節資料處理………………………………………………… 103 第四章研究結果第一節□j學生樂觀、調節焦點、情緒調節、逆境經驗與恢復力、創造力之現況…………………………………………………………… 105 第二節□人口變項在逆境經驗上的差異情形……………… 110 第三節□樂觀、調節焦點、情緒調節、逆境經驗與恢復力、創造力之關係… 122 第四節□樂觀、調節焦點、情緒調節、逆境經驗對恢復力、創新行為與創造力自我效能的迴歸分析…………………………………… 133 第五節樂觀、調節焦點、情緒調節、逆境經驗與恢復力、創造力的典型相關分析………………………………………………………… 137 第五章討論、結論與建議第一節□Q論……………………………………………………… 141 第二節□祭蛂K…………………………………………………… 159 第三節□媊部K…………………………………………………… 163 參考文獻中文部分…………………………………………………………… 171 西文部分…………………………………………………………… 173 附錄附錄一：逆境經驗量表的建立…………………………………… 189 附錄二：人口變項在樂觀、調節焦點、情緒調節、恢復力及創造力差異情形… 209 附錄三：逆境經驗開放問卷…………………………………… 219 附錄四：預試問卷………………………………………………… 220 附錄五：正式問卷………………………………………………… 226 附錄六：各變項之相關係數表…………………………………… 232	zh_TW
dc.format.extent	75726 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	138630 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	134751 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	108290 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	241471 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	556883 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	388824 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	408054 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	301739 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	216512 bytes	-
dc.format.extent	2380842 bytes	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.format.mimetype	application/pdf	-
dc.language.iso	en_US	-
dc.source.uri (資料來源)	http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0911520412	en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞)	樂觀	zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞)	調節焦點	zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞)	情緒調節	zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞)	逆境經驗	zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞)	恢復力	zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞)	創造力	zh_TW
dc.title (題名)	大學生逆境經驗及其相關因素之研究	zh_TW
dc.type (資料類型)	thesis	en
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	中文部分：	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	丁明潔（2003）。國中生樂觀 /悲觀傾向、課業壓力評估、課業壓力因應方式與學校生活適應之相關研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	大辭典編纂委員會（1985）。大辭典（初版）。臺北市：三民。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	李澄賢（2004）。大學生情緒調節、調節焦點、樂觀與創造力之關係。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	李毓娟（1996）。大學生的心理經驗及其相關因素之研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	林千雅（2001）。心臟衰竭病患希望不確定感與社會支持之探討。國立陽明大學臨床護理研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	林俊雄（2001）。台灣地區連鎖加盟事業經營管理者逆境因應與工作滿足、組織承諾相關研究。私立大葉大學事業經營研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	林麗雪（2005 2月25日）。校園自殺人數遽增年齡下降。民生報。A2版。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	吳英璋（2000）。災後的心理反應及復原歷程。學生輔導雙月刊，66，頁28-35。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	吳振賢（1997）。大學生之希望概念及其相關因素之研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	吳靜吉（1991）。樂觀量表簡介。未出版。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	吳靜吉、李澄賢（2003）。樂觀量表的建立。未出版。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	吳靜吉、郭俊賢、王文中、劉鶴龍、陳淑惠和李慧賢（1996）。創新行為量表之編制與修訂。未出版。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	施惠琪（2002）。成人超越逆境之分析研究。國立暨南國際大學成人與繼續教育研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	徐政舜（2004）。逆境向上學生成長經驗之個案研究。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	孤草（2002）。逆境心理學。高雄：宏文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	莊英祺（譯）（1997）。AQ：逆境商數。（原著者：Stoltz P.）。台北：時報。（原著初版年：1988）。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	夏征農（主編）（1992）。辭海（初版）。臺北市：台灣東華。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	陳免（2003）。登上人生高峰的最後一堂課。商業周刊，143，頁140-155。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	陳怡霏（2004）。逆境商數與成就動機、工作績效關係之研究。國立台灣科技大學企業管理系研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	陳淑蓉（2003）。幽默感對可能壓力事件及負向生活事件的認知評估、情緒反應之影響。國立台灣師範大學教育心理與輔導研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	陳澄和（譯）（1994）。如何重建人生：驚變與挫折之後（原著者：Cramer, K. D.）。台北：時報。（原著初版年：1990）。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	張美惠（譯）（1996）。情緒商數。(原著者：G oleman, D.)。臺北：時報。（原著初版年：1994）。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	郭靜晃、吳幸玲（譯）（1994）。發展心理學。（原著者：Philip, R. & Barbara, N.）。臺北：揚智。（原著初版年：1975）。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	游恆山（譯）（2003）。壓力與創傷。（原著者：Resick, P. A.）。台北：五南。（原著初版年：2001）。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	黃得時，柯遜添，台灣商務印書管編審部（1974）。辭源（第四版）。台北市：台灣商務。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	傅佩榮（譯）（2001）。創造勇氣。（原著者：May, R.）。臺北：立緒。（原著初版年：1969）。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	曾敬梅（2002）。玩興、幽默、創意態度、創意氛圍與創造力之關係。國立政治大學教育研究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	齊思賢（譯）（2002）。奇葩與怪傑：時代、價值觀和關鍵時刻如何塑造領袖。（原	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	著者：Bennis W. & Thomas R.）。台北：時報。（原著初版年：2001）。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	劉佩雲（1989）。性別、創造力、自我檢校與幽默感的關係。國立政治大學教育研	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	究所碩士論文。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	廣東、廣西、湖南、河南辭源修訂組，商務印書館編輯部（1989）。大陸版辭源（初版）。台北市：台灣商務。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	糜文開（譯）（2003）。泰戈爾詩集。（原著者：Tagore R.）。三民書局：台北。（原	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	著初版年：1963）。	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	西文部分：	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Abele, A. E. (2002). Dispositional optimism, unrealistic optimism and memory for more or less self-relevant information. Manuscript submitted for publication.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. (1978). Learned helplessness in human: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abcdrmal Psychology, 87, 49-74.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Adler, N. E., & Matthews, K. (1994). Health psychology: Why do some people get sick and some stay well? Annual Review of psychology, 45, 229-259.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Aldwin, C. M., Sutton, K. J., & Lachman, M. (1996). The development of coping resources in adulthood. Journal of Personality, 64, 837-871.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Allen, L. W. (1997). Strategies that African-American female executives and professionals use to manage adversity in the workplace. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Fielding Institute.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Alonzo, A. A. (2000). The experience of chronic illness and post-traumatic stress disorder: The consequences of cumulative adversity. Social Science and Medicine, 50, 1475-1484.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Amirkhan, J. H. (1990). A factor analytically derived measure of coping: The coping strategy indicator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 59, 1066-1074.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Ann, S. M.,＆ Marie-Gabrielle J. S. (2000). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder ＆ S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The Handbook of Positive psychology (74-88). London: Oxford University Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Anne, G. M. M. (2002). Overcoming adversity: The protective role of locus of control, attributional style, and self-efficacy, in the promotion of resilience. Unpublished masteral dissertation, University of Windsor.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Aspinwall, L. G. (2004). Dealing with adversity: Self-regulation, coping, adaptation, and health. In H. Miles & B. B. Marilynn (Eds.), Perspective on social psychology (pp.3-27). Malden, MA, US: Blackwell Publishers.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Aspinwall, L. G., & Brunhart, S. (1996). Distinguishing optimism from denial: Optimistic beliefs and behavior. In E. C. Chang (Ed.), Optimism and pessimism: Implications for theory, research, and practice (pp. 217-238). Washington DC: American Psychological Association.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Aspinwall, L. G., & Taylor, S. E. (1992). Modeling cognitive adaptation: A longitudinal investigation of the impact of individual differences and coping on college adjustment and performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 755-765.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Barnum, D. D, Snyder, C. R., Rapoff, M. A., Mani, M. M., & Thampson, R. (1998). Hope and social support in the psychological adjustment of children who have survived burn injuries and their control. Children’s Health Care, 27, 15-30.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Barusch, A. M. (1999). Religion, adversity and age: Religions experiences of low-income elderly women. Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare, 26, 125-142.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Beardsley, H. A. (2001). Childhood resilience: A developmental model to promote positive outcome despite adversity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, California School of Professional Psychology Berkeley/Alameda.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Beck, A. T., Steer, R. A., Kovacs, M., & Garrison, B. (1985). Hopelessness and eventual suicide: A 10-year prospective study of patients hospitalized with suicidal ideation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 142, 559-563.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Bernadette, R. J. (2003). The nature of independent adversity in the lives of resilient and maladaptive youth: A comparative analysis. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Minnesota.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Block, J. & Kremen, (1996). IQ and Ego-Resiliency: Conceptual and Empirical Connections and Separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 349-361.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Block, J. (1982). Assimilation, accommodation, and the dynamics of personality development. Child Development, 53, 281-295.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Billings, D. W., Folkman, S., Acree, M., & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Coping and physical health during caregiving: The role of positive and negative affect. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 131-142.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Bonanno, G. A., Field, N. P., Kovacevic, A., & Kaltman, S. (2002). Self-enhancement as a buffer against extreme adversity: Civil war in Bosnia and traumatic loss in the United States. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 28, 184-196.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Brehm, J. W. (1966). Resopense to loss of freedom: A theory of psychological reactance. New York: Acsdemic Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Brody, L. R. (2000). The socialization of gender differences in emotional expression: Display rules, infant temperament, and differentiation. In A. H. Fischer (Ed.), Gender and emotion: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 24-27). New York: Cambridge University Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Carver, C. S., Harris, S. D., Noriega, V., Pozo, C., Robinson, D. S., Ketcham, A. S., Moffat F. L., Clark, K. C., Scheier, M. F. (1993). How coping mediates the effect of optimism on distress: A study of women with early stage breast cancer. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 375-390.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Carver, S. C.,＆ Scheier, M. F.（1998）On the self-regulation of behavior. New York: Cambridge University Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Carver, S. C.,＆ Scheier, M. F.（2002）Optimism. In C. R. Snyder ＆ S. J. Lopez（Eds.）, The Handbook of Positive psychology (pp.231-243). London: Oxford University Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Carver, S. C., Scheier, M. F., & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach. Journal of personality and social psychology, 56, 267-283.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Chao-Ming, L. (2003). Adversity response profile of Eastern and Western university leaders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of South Dakota.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Chen, X., Tyler, K. A., Whitbeck, L. B., & Hoyt, D. R. (2004). Early sexual abuse, street adversity, and drug use among female homeless and runway adolescents in the midwest. Journal of Drug Issues, 34, 1-21.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Coat, E. J., Janoff-Bulman, R., & Alpert, N. (1996). Approach versus avoidance goals : Differences in self-evaluation and well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1057-1067.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Collins, R., Taylor, S., & Skokan, L. (1990). A better world or a shattered vision? Changes in life perspectives following victimization. Social Cognition, 8, 263-285.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Copper, M. L., Shaver, P. R., & Collins, N. L. (1998). Attachment styles, emotion regulation, and adjustment in adolescence. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1380-1397.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Costa. P. T. Jr., & McCrae. R. R. (1992). Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO PI-R) and NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI) professional manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Cozzarelli, C. (1993). Personality and self-efficacy as predictors of coping with abortion. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65, 1224-1236.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Criss, M. M., Pettit, G. S., Bates, J. E., Dodge, K. A., & Lapp, A. L. (2002). Family adversity, positive peer relationships, and children’s externalizing behavior: A longitudinal perspective on risk and resilience. Child Development, 73, 1220-1237.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Davey, M., Eaker, D. G., & Walter, L. H. (2003). Resilience Process in Adolescents: Personality Profiles, Self-Worth, and Coping. Journal of Adolescent Research, 18, 347-362.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	DeStone, D., & Salovey, P. (1997). Structural dynamism in the concept of self: A flexible model for a malleable concept. Review of General Psychology, 1, 389-409.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Diamond, L. M., & Aspinwall, L. G. (2003). Emotion regulation across the life span: An integrative perspective emphasizing self-regulation, positive affect, and dyadic processes. Motivation and Emotion, 27, 125-156.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Diane, W. C. (2000). Pathways of thriving and resilience: Growth responses to adversity and trauma in two Cambodian communities. A comparative study between Lowell, Massachusetts and Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Unpublished masteral dissertation, University of Massachusetts Lowell.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Dohrenwend, B. P. (2000). The role of adversity and stress in psychopathology: Some evidence and its implications for theory and research. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 41, 1-19.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Doucet, J. (2002). Linking childhood family adversity to the timing and quality of intimate relationships in adolescence and early adulthood. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Boston University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Doucet, J., Aseltine, R. H. Jr. (2003). Childhood family adversity and the quality of marital relationships in young adulthood. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 20, 818-842.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Downey, J. A. (2002). Perspectives on educational resilience from children facing adversity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Northern Colorado.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Durbin, C. E., Klein, D. N., & Schwartz, J. E. (2000). Predicting the 2-sup-1/-sub-2-year outcome of dysthymic disorder: The role of childhood adversity and family history of psychopathology. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 57-63.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Dweck, C., & Wortman, C. B. (1980). Achievement, text anxiety and learned helplessness: Adaptive and maladaptive congitions. In H. W. Krohne & L. Laux (Eds.), Achievement, stress and anxiety. Washington, D. C.: Hemisphere.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1996). Approach and avoidance achievement goals and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 461-475.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Elliot, A. J., Sheldom, K. M., & Church, M. A. (1997). Avoidance personal goals and subjective well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 70, 23, 915-927.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Guthrie, I. K., & Reiser, M. (2000). Dispositional emotionality and regulation: Their role in predicting quality of social function. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 78, 136-157.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Emmons, R., & Kaiser, H. (1996). Goal orientation and emotional well-being: Linking goals and affect through self. In L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling:Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp,79-98). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbuam.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Erika, S. G. (1999). A comparison of adversity response scores: Education leaders and business and industry leaders. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Northern Arizona University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Eubanks, G. K. (2002). Overcoming adversity: Narrative construction in autobiographies of border crossings (Elaine, Mar, Richard Rodriguez, Henry Louis Gates, Jr.). Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cleveland State University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Fabes, R. A., & Eisenberg, N. (1997). Regulatory control in adults’ stress-related responses to daily life events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 1107-1117.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Fawzy, F. I., Fawzy , N. W., Hyun, C. S., Elashoff, R., Guthrie, D., et al. (1993). Malignant melanoma: Effects of an early structured psychiatric intervention, coping, and affective state on recurrence and survival 6 years later. Archives of General Psychiatry, 50, 681-689.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Ferguson, D. M., & Horwood, LJ. (2003). Resilience to childhood adversity: Results of a 12- year study. In S. S. Luthar (Ed), Resilience and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood adversities (pp.130-155). New York: Cambridge University Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Ferguson, K. S. (2002). Pathways to adaptive and maladaptive behavior in schoolaged children exposed to family adversity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Kansas.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Fitzgerald, T. E., Tennen, H., Affleck, G., & Pransky, G. S. (1993). The relative importance of dispositional optimism and control appraisals in quality of life after coronary artery bypass surgery. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 16, 25-43.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Folkman, S. (1997). Positive psychological states and coping with severe stress. Social Science and Medicine, 45, 1207-1221.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Folkman, S., Chesney, M. A., & Christopher-Richards, A. (1994). Stress and coping in caregiving partners of man with AIDS. In L. Zegans & T. J. Coates (Eds.), Diagnosis and management of psychiatric manifestations of HIV disease. Philadelphia: Saunders.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Folkman, S. & Lazarus, R. S. (1980). An analysis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21, 219-239.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Folkman, S. & Lazarus, R. S. (1985). If it changes it must be a process: Study of emotion and coping during three stages of a college examination. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 48(1), 150-170.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Fontaine, K. R., Manstead A. S. R., & Wagner, H. (1993). Optimism, perceived control over stress, and coping. European Journal of personality, 7, 267-281.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Forest, K. B. (1991). The interplay of childhood stress and adult life events on women’s symptoms of depression. Dissertation Abstracts International, 51(9), 3237A.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man’s search for meaning. New York: Washington Square Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Frankl, V. E. (1984). Man’s search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy (Rev. ed.). New York: Simon & Schuster.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Fredrickson, B. L. (1998). What good are positive emotions? Review of General Psychology, 2, 300-319.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Fredrickson, B. L. (2001). The role of positive emotions in positive psychology: The broaden–and-build theory of positive emotions. American Psychologist, 56, 218-226.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Fredrickson, B. L., Tugade, M. M., Waugh, C. E., & Larkin, G. R. (2003). What Good Are Positive Emotion in Crises？A Prospective Study of Resilience and Emotion Following the Terrorist Attacks on the United States on September 11th, 2001. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 365-376.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gana, K. (2001). Is sense of coherence a mediator between adversity and psychological well-being in adult? Stress and Health: Journal of the International Society for the Investignation of Stress, 17, 77-83.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Garmezy, N. (1991). Resiliency and vulnerability to adverse developmental outcomes associated with poverty. American Behavioral Scientist, 34, 416-430.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Garmezy, N. (1993). Children in poverty: Resilience despite risk. Psychiatry, 56, 127-136.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Garmezy, N., Mastern, A. S., & Tellegen. A.(1984). The study of stress and competence in children: A building block for developmental psychopathology. Child Developmental, 55, 97-111.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gartside, S. E., Johnson, D. A., Leitch, M. M., Claire, T, & Ingram, C. D. (2003) Early life adversity programs changes in central 5-HT neuronal function in adulthood. European Journal of Neuroscience, 17, 2401-2408.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gass, K. A., & Chang, A. S. (1989). Appraisal of bereavement, coping resources, and psychosocial health dysfunction in widows and widowers. Nursing Research, 38, 31-36.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Geers, A. L., Handley, I. M., & McLarney, A. R. (2003). Discerning the role of optimism in persuasion: The valence-enhancement hypothesis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 85, 554-565.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	George, J. M., & Zhou, J. (2002). Understanding when bad moods foster creativity and good ones don’t: The role of context and clarity of feelings. Journal of Applied Psychology, 87, 687-697.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gibson, C. L., Piquero, A. R., & Tibbetts, S. G. (2001). The contribution of family adversity and verbal IQ to criminal behavior. International Journal of Offender Therapy and Comparative Criminology, 45, 574-593.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Given, C. W., Stommel, M., Given, B., Osuch, J., Kurtz, M. E., et al. (1993). The influence of cancer patients’ symptoms and functional states on patients’ depression and family caregivers’ reaction and depression. Health Psychology, 12, 277-285.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Glant, M. D., & Johnson, J. L. (Eds.). (1999). Resilience and development: Positive life adaptation. New York: Plenum.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Glenn, A.,＆ Howard T.（1996）Construing Benefits from Adversity: Adaptational Significance and Dispositional Underpinnings. Journal of Personality, 64, 899-922.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Goebert, D. A., Bell, C. K., Hishinuma, E. S., Nahulu, L. B., Johnson, R. C., et al. (2004). Influence of family adversity on school-related behavioral problems among multi-ethnic high school students. School Psychology International, 25, 193-206.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Greenberg, L. S., Rice L. N., & Elliott, R. (1993). Facilitating emotional change: The moment to moment process. New York: Guildford.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gross, J. J. (1998). Antecedent- and response-focused emotion regulation: Divergent consequences for experience, expression, and physiology. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 224-237.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gross, J. J. & John P. O. (1998). Mapping the domain of emotional expressivity: Multi-method evidence for a hierarchical model. Journal of personality and social psychology, 74, 170-191.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gross, J. J. & John P. O. (2003). Individual difference in two emotion regulation process: implication for affect, relationships, and well-being. Journal of personality and social psychology, 85,348-362.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gross, J. J. & Levenson, R. W. (1993). Emotional suppression: Physiology, self-report, and expressive behavior. Journal of personality and social psychology, 64, 970-986.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Gross, J. J. & Levenson, R. W. (1997). Hiding feelings: The acute effects of inhibiting positive and negative emotion. Journal of Abcdrmal Psychology, 106, 95-103.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Harkness, K. L., & Wildes, J. E. (2002). Childhood adversity and anxiety versus dysthymia co-morbidity in major depression. Psychological Medicine, 32, 1239-1249.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Higgins, E. T. (1997). Beyond pleasure and pain. American Psychologist, 55, 1280-1300.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Higgins, E. T. (1998). Promotion and prevention: Regulatory focus as a motivational principle. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 30, 1-46.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Higgins, E. T. (2000). Making a good decision: Value from fit. American Psychologist, 55, 1217-1230.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Higgins, E. T., Shah, J., & Friedman, R. (1997). Emotional responses to goal attainment: Strength of regulatory focus as moderator. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72, 515-525.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hill, S. A. J., Hugo, P., Hughes, P., Fonagy, p., & Hartman, D. (2002). Adolescents murderers: Abuse and adversity in childhood. Journal of Adolescence, 25, 221-230.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hirt, E. R., McDonald, H. E., & Melton, R. J. (1996). Processing goals and the after- performance link: Mood as main effect or mood as input? In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 303-328). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hobfoll, S. E. (1985a). The limitations of social support in the stress process. In I. G. Sarason & B. R. Sarason (Eds.), Social support: Theory, research, and application (pp. 391-414). The Hague, The Netherlands: Nijhoff.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hobfoll, S. E. (1989). Conservation of resources: A new attempt at conceptualizing stress. American Psychologist, 44, 513-524.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hobfoll, S. E., Johnson, R. J., Ennis, N., & Jackson, A. P. (2003). Resource loss, resource gain, and emotion outcomes among inner city women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 84, 632-643.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hobfoll, S. E., & Lilly, R. (1993). Resource conservation as a strategy for community psychology. Journal of Community Psychology, 21, 128-148.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hojat, M., Gonnela, J. S., Erdmann, J. B., & Vogel, W. H. (2003). Medical students’ cognitive appraisal of stressful life events as related to personality, physical well-being, and academic performance: A longitudinal study. Personality and Individual Differences, 35, 219-235.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Holaday, M., & McPhearson, R. W. (1997). Resilience and severe burns. Journal of Counseling and Development, 75, 346-356.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hornby, A. S. (Ed.). (1983). The Advanced learner`s dictionary of English (2nd ed). Taipei: Dong Hua.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Hudson, P. (2004). The impact of Alcoholics Anonymous membership, spiritual awareness, and commitment effort on alcohol-problem adversity. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Walden University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Irwin, L. G., Thorne, S., & Varcoe, C. (2002). Strength in adversity: Motherhood for women who have been battered. Canadian Journal of Nursing Research, 34, 47-57.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Janoff-Bulman, R., & Frieze, I. H. (1991). A theoretical perspective for understanding reactions to victimization. Journal of Social Issues, 39, 1-17.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Janoff-Bulman, R., & Schwartzberg, S. S. (1991). Toward a general model of personal change. In. C. R. Synder & D. R. Forsyth (Eds.), Handbook of Social and Clinical psychology: The Health Perspective (pp.488-508). New York: Pergamon.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Jerilee, G.（1999）.Response to Adversity and Personality Structure: A Model-Generating Study of College Students. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The Union Institute.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Juon, H. S., Ensminger, M. E., & Feehan, M. (2003). Childhood adversity and later morality in an urban African American cohort. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 2044-2046.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Justin, T. (1996). Characteristics of regulatory environment and impact on entrepreneurial strategic orientation: An empirical study of Chinese private entrepreneurs. Academy of Management Proceedings, 69,106-110.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Kahn, R. L. (1991). Retention, resilience, and enhancement: Components of vitality throughout the life course. Course paper presented at the meeting of the MacArthur Foundation Successful Aging Program, San Francisco.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Kanter, R. (1988). When a thousand flowers bloom: Structural, collective, and social conditions for innovation in organization. In B. M. Staw & L. L. Cummings (Eds.), Research in organizational behavior, vol 10: 169-211. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Kaufmann, G., & Vosburg, S. K., (1997). ‘‘Paradoxical’’ mood effects on creative problem- solving. Cognition & Emotion, 11, 151-170.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Kendler, K. S., Gardner, CO., & Prescott, CA. (2003). Personality and the experience of environmental adversity. Psychological Medicine, 33, 1193-1202.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Killoran, M., Schlitz, M. J., & Lewis, N. (2002). ‘‘Unremarkable’’ recoveries: Normalizing adversity and cancer survival. Qualitative Health Research, 12, 208-222.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Klinger, E. (1975). Consequences of commitment to and disengagement from incentives. Psychological Review, 82, 1-25.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Klinger, E. (1977). Meaning and void: Inner experience and the incentives in people’s lives. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Kobasa, S. C. (1979). Stressful life events, personality, and health: An inquiry into hardiness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1-11.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Kuiper, N. A., Sibenik, B. Melanie. (2005). A good sense of humor doesn’t always help: agency and communion as moderators of psychological well-being. Personality and Individual Differences, 38, 365-378.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Kerkkanen, P., Kuiper, N. A., Martin, R. A. (2004). A sense of humor, physical health, and well-being at work: A three-year longitudinal study of Finnish police officers. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 17, 21-36.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Lazarus, R. S. (1981). The costs and benefits of denial. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41, 503-516.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Lazarus, R. S., & Alfert, E. (1964). Short-circuiting of threat by experimentally altering cognitive appraisal. Journal of Abcdrmal and Social psychology, 69, 195-205.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Leslie, H. K. (1998). Stress sensitization and the relationship between life events, childhood adversity, depression history, and symptom heterogeneity in major depression. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Oregon.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Lewis, H., & Kloewer, W. (1996). Hope, coping, and adjustment among children with sickle cell disease: Tests of mediator and moderator models. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 21, 25-41.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Lewis, T. T. (2003). A lifetime of stress: Chronic burden, childhood adversity and disease progression in women infected with HIV. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of California, Los Angeles.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Linda, M. (1999). Hope, coping, and adjustment among family members of individuals with obsessive compulsive disorder. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Florida.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Linley, P. A., Joseph, S. (2004). Positive change following trauma and adversity: A review. Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 11-21.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Lipowski, Z. J. (1970). Physical illness and the coping processes. Psychiatry in Medicine, 1, 91-102.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Litt, M. D., Tennen, H., Affleck, G., & Klock, S. (1992). Coping and cognitive factors in adaptation to in vitro fertilization failure. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 171-187.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Little, B. (1989). Personal projects analysis: Trivial pursuits, magnificent obsessions, and the search for coherence. In D. Buss & N. Cantor (Eds.), Personality psychology: Recent trends and emerging directions (pp. 15-31). New York: Springer-Verlag.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Lockwood, P., Jordan, G. H., & Kunda, Z. (2002). Motivation by positive or negative role models: regulatory focus determines who will best inspire us. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 83, 854-864.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Lumley, M. N. (2003). Childhood adversity, early maladaptive schemas, and anxious versus anhedonic symptom expression in adolescence. Unpublished masteral dissertation, Queen’s University at Kingston. (Canada).	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Luthar, S. S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future work. New York: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41, 954-969.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Martin, L. L., & Stoner, P. (1996). Mood as input: What we think about how we feel determines how we think. In L. L. Martin & A. Tesser (Eds.), Striving and feeling: Interactions among goals, affect, and self-regulation (pp. 279-301). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Mastern, A. S. (1989). Resilience in development: Implications of the study of successful adaptation for developmental psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), The emergence of a discipline: Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology (Vol. 1, pp.261-294). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associate, Inc.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Mastern, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes development. American Psychologist, 56, 227-238.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Masterm, A. S., & Best, K. M. & Garmezy, N.(1990). Resilience and development: Contribution from the study of children who overcome adversity. Development and psychopathology, 2, 425-444.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Mastern, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of competence in favorable and unfavorable environment: Lessons from successful children. American Psychologist, 53, 205-220.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Mastern, A. S., Hubbard, J. J., Gest, S. D., Tellegen, A., Garmezy, N., et al. (1999). Competence in the context of adversity: Pathways to resilience and maladaptation from childhood to late adolescence. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 143-169.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	May, R. (1980). Value conflicts and anxiety. In I. L. Kutash & L. B. Schlesinger (Eds.), Handbook on stress and anxiety (pp. 241-248). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	McAdams, D. P. (1985). Power, intimacy, and the life story: Personological inquiries into identity. Chicago: Dorsey Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	McAdams, D. P. (2001). The psychology of life stories. Review of General Psychology, 5,100-122.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	McClelland, D. C., Koestner, R., & Weinberger, J. (1989). How do self-attributed and implicit motives differ? Psychological Review, 96, 690-702.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T. Jr., (1986). Personality, coping, and coping effectiveness in an adult sample. Journal of Personality, 54, 385-405.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	McMullen, M. N., & Markman, K. D. (2000). Downward counterfactuals and motivation: The wake-up call and the Pangloss effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 26, 575-584.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Miller, I. W. & Norman, W. H. (1979). Learned helplessness in humans: A review and attribution theory model. Psychological Bulletin, 86, 93-118.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Miller, M. C. (2001). Life mastery through adversity. [ on-line ] Available: http://www.nureshealer.com/ Adversity.htm.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Miller, S. M. (1987). Monitoring and blunting: Validation of a questionnaire to assess styles of information seeking under threat. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 345-353.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Moffitt, K., & Singer, J. (1994). Continuity in the life story: Self-defining memories, affect, and approach/avoidance personal strivings. Journal of Personality, 62, 21-43.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Morris, W. (1973). The American heritage dictionary of the English language. Boston: American Heritage Publishing Company.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Morris, L. W., & Engle, W. B. (1981). Assessing various coping strategies and their effects on test performance and anxiety. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 37, 165-171.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Murphy, L. B., & Moriarty, A. E. (1976). Vulnerability, coping, and growth: From infancy to adolescence. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Nolen-Hoeksema, S., & Morrow, J. (1991). A prospective study of depression and distress following a natural disaster: The 1989 Loma Prieta earthquake. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 105-121.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Norem, J. K., & Cantor, N. (1986). Defensive pessimism: ‘‘Harness’’ anxiety as motivation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 52, 1208-1217.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Oldham, G. R., & Cummings, A. (1996). Employee creativity: Personal and contextual factors at work. Academy of Management Journal, 39, 607-634.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	O’Leary, V. E. (1998). Strength in the Face of Adversity: Individual and Social Thriving. Journal of Social Issues, 54, 425-446.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	O’Leary, V. E. & Ickovics, J. R. (1995). Resilience and thriving in response to challenge: An opportunity for a paradigm shift in women’s health. Women’s Health: Research on Gender, Behavior, and Policy, 1, 121-142.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Paris, R., & Bradley, C. L. (2001). The challenge of adversity: Three narratives of alcohol dependence, recovery, and adult development. Qualitative Health Research, 11, 647 -667.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Park, C. L., Cohen, L. H., & Murch, R. L. (1996). Assessment and prediction of stress-related growth. Journal of Personality, 64, 71-105.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Park, C. L., Moore, P. J., Turner, R. A., & Adler, N. E. (1997). The role of constructive thinking and optimism in psychological and behavioral adjustment during pregnancy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73, 584-592.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Pennebaker, J. W. (1997). Opening up: The healing power of emotional expression. New York: Guilford Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Peterson, K. (1997). Success in the face of adversity: Six stories of minority career achievement. In H. S. Farmer (Ed), Diversity & women’s career development: From adolescence to adulthood (pp.172-186). Thousand Oaks: Sage Publications, Inc.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Philip, H. M. (2003). Psychological resilience: The influence of positive and negative life events upon optimism, hope, and perceived locus of control. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Walden University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Porter, L. S., Marco, C. A., Schwartz, J. E., & Neale, J. M. (2000). Gender differences in coping: A comparison of trait and momentary assessments. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 19, 480-498.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Porter, L. S., & Stone, A. A. (1995). Are there really gender differences in coping? A reconsideration of previous data and results from a daily study. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 14, 184-200.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Price, R. H., Choi, J. N., & Vinokur, A. D. (2002). Links in the chain of adversity following job loss: How financial strain and loss of personal control lead to depression, impaired functioning, and poor health. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 7, 302-312.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Ptacek, J. T., Smith, R. E., & Zanas J. (1992). Gender, appraisal, and coping: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Personality, 60, 746-770.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Ray, O. (2004). How the mind hurts and heals the body. American Psychologist, 59, 29-40.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Rime, B., Philippot, P., Boca, S., & Mesquita, B. (1992). Long-lasting cognitive and social consequences of emotion: Social sharing and rumination. In W. Stroebe & M. Hewstone (Eds.), European review of social psychology, vol. 3, 225-258. New York: Wiley.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Robbie G.（2000）Adversity, Resilience and Young People: the Protective Value of Positive School and Spare Time Experiences. Children & Society, 14,37-47.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Roberson, L. (1990). Prediction of job satisfaction from characteristics of personal work goals. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 11, 29-41.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Robert, M. C., Brown, K. J., Johnson, R. J., & Reinke, J. (2002). Development, Prevention, and Promotion. In C. R. Snyder ＆ S. J. Lopez (Eds.), The Handbook of Positive psychology (663-675). London: Oxford University Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Robinson, F. W. (2001). Adversity, crisis counseling, and the openness of God: An evaluation of open theism for pastoral response to victims of violence. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Azusa Pacific University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Rodin, J., & Salovey, P.(1989). Health psychology. Annual Review of psychology, 40, 533-579.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Roth, S. (1980). A revised model of learned hopelessness in humans. Journal of Personality, 48, 103-113.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Rothbaum, F., Weisz, J. R., & Snyder, S. S. (1982). Changing the world and changing the self: a two-process model of perceived control. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 42, 5-37.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Rotter, J. B. (1990). Internal versus external control of reinforcement: A case history of a variable. American Psychologist, 45, 489-493.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Rutter, M. (1987). Psychosocial resilience and proactive mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 57,316-331.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Ryabchenko, K. A. (2004). The role of childhood adversity, cluster B personality disorders and chronic stressors on the perpetuation of depressive symptomatology. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, State University of New York at Binghamton.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Sameroff, A. J., Seifer, R. (1993). Stability of intelligence from preschool to adolescence: the influence of social and family risk factor. Child Development, 64, 80-97.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Sandler, I. (2001). Quality and ecology of adversity as common mechanisms of risk and resilience. American Journal of Community Psychology, 29, 19-61.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (1992). Effects of optimism on psychological and physical well-being: Theoretical overview and empirical update. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 16, 201-208.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Scheier, M. F., & Carver, C. S. (2001). Adapting to cancer: The importance of hope and purpose. In A. Baum & B. L. Andeson (Eds.), Psychosocial interventions for cancer (pp. 15-36). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Scheier, M. F., Weintraub, J. K., & Carver, C. S. (1986). Coping with stress: Divergent strategies of optimists and pessimists. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 51, 1257-1264.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Schmidt, J. A. (1998). Overcoming challenges: Exploring the role of action, experience, and opportunity in fostering resilience among adolescents. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The University of Chicago.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Scott, S. G., & Bruce, R. A. (1994). Determinants of innovative behavior: A path model of individual innovation in the workplace. Academy of Management Journal, 37, 580-607.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Segerstrom, S. C. (2001). Optimism and attentional bias for negative and positive stimuli. Personality and Social psychology Bulletin, 27, 1334-1343.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Seligman, M. E. P.（1975）Helplessness: On depression, development, and death. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Seligman, M. E. P. (1991). Learned optimism. New York: Knopf.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Selye, H. (1976). The stress of life. New York: McGraw-Hill.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Shah, J., & Higgins, E. T. (2001). Regulatory concerns and appraisal efficiency: The general impact of promotion and prevention. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 80, 693-705.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Shah, J., Higgins, E. T., & Friedman, R. S. (1998). Performance incentives and means: How regulatory focus influences goal attainment. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 80, 285-293.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Shek, D. TL., Tang, V., Lam, CM., Lam, MC., Tsoi, KW., et al. (2003). The relationship between Chinese cultural beliefs about adversity and psychological adjustment in Chinese family with economic disadvantage. American Journal of Family Therapy, 31, 427-443.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Sheldon, K. M., Ryan, R. M., Rawsthorne, L. J., & Ilardi, B. (1997). Trait self and true self: Cross-role variation in the Big-Five personality traits and its relations with psychological authenticity and subjective well-being. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 73, 1380-1393.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Shelley, E. T.,＆ David, A. A.（1996）Positive Illusions and Coping with Adversity. Journal of Personality, 64, 873-898.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Shifren, K., & Hooker, K. (1995). Stability and change in optimism: A study among spouse caregivers. Experimental Aging Research, 21, 59-76.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Shontz, F. C. (1965). Reactions to crisis. The Volta Review, 67, 364-370.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Shontz, F. C. (1975). The psychological aspects of physical illness and disability. New York: Macmillan.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Siegel, B. (1986). Love, medicine, and miracles: Lessons learned about self-healing from a surgeon’s experience with exceptional patients. New York: Harper & Row.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Siegel, K., & Schrimshaw, E. W. (2000). Perceiving benefits in adversity: Stress-related growth in women living with HIV/AIDS. Social Science and Medicine, 51, 1543-1554.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Silver, R. S., & Wortman C. B. (1980). Coping with undesirable life events. In Garber, J. & Seligman, M. P. (Eds.), Human helplessness: Theory and applications (pp.279-340). New York: Academic Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Silverthorne, J. P. (2002). Adversity in the form of gender discrimination: A collective reflection of ten professional women who experience meaningful work. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, The George Washington University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Singer, J. A., King, L. A., Green, M. C., & Barr, S. C. (2002). Personal identity and civic responsibility: “Rising to the occasion’’ narratives and generativity in community action student interns. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 535-556.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Singer, J. A., & Salovey, P. (1993). The remembered self. New York: Free Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Singer, N. D. (2002). Perceived benefits of medical adversity. Unpublished masteral dissertation, California State University, Long Beach.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Skinner, N., & Brewer, N. (2002). The dynamics of treat and challenge appraisals prior to stressful achievement events. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 83, 678-692.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Snyder, C. R. (1994). The psychology of hope: You can get there from here. New York: Free Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Snyder, C. R., & Dinoff, B. L. (1999). Coping where have you been? In C. R. Snyder (Eds.), Coping: The psychology of what works (pp.3-19). New York: Oxford University Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Snyder, C. R., Sympson, S. C., Ybasco, F. C., Borders, T. F., Babyak, M. A., et al. (1996). Development and validation of the state hope scale. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 70, 321-335.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Stairs, D. L. (2003). Defying adversity: A case study of five academically successful adolescents in a low-performing school. Unpublished masteral dissertation, Pacific Lutheran University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Stepper, S., & Strack, F. (1993). Proprioceptive determinants of emotional and nonemotional feeling. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 64, 211-220.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Steptoe, A., & Marmot, M. (2003). Burden of psychosocial adversity and vulnerability in middle age: Associations with biobehavioral risk factors and quality of life. Psychosomatic Medicine,65, 1029-1037.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Stoltz, P. G. (2000). Adversity Quotient at Work. New York: Morrow.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Stone, A. A., & Neale, J. M. (1984). New measure of daily coping: Development and preliminary results. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 46, 892-906.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Surtees, P. G., & Wainwright, N. WJ. (1999). Surviving adversity: Event decay, vulnerability and the onset of anxiety and depressive disorder. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 249, 86-95.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Taylor, S. E. (1983). Adjustment to threatening events: A theory of cognitive adaptation.. American psychologist, 38, 1161-1173.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Taylor, S. E. (1989). Positive illusion: Creative self-deception and the healthy mind. New York: Basic Books.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Taylor, S. E., & Brown, J. (1988). Illusion and well-being: A social psychological perspective on mental health. Psychological Bulletin, 103, 193-210.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., Aspinwall, L. G., Schneider, S. G., Rodriguez, R., & Herbert, M. (1992). Optimism, coping, psychological distress, and high-risk sexual behavior among men at risk for acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS). Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 63, 460-473.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Taylor, S. E., Wood, J. V., & Lichtman, R. R. (1983). It could be worse: Selective evaluation as a response to victimization. Journal of Social Issues, 39, 19-40.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Tedeschi, R., Calhoun, L., & Gross, B. (1993). Construing benefits from negative event: An examination of personality variable. Poster presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Toronto.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Thompson, S. C. (1981). Will it hurt less if I can control it? A complex answer to a simple question. Psychological Bulletin, 90, 89-101.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Thompson, S. C. (1985). Finding positive meaning in a stressful event and coping. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 6, 279-295.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Thompson, S. C., Sobolew-Shubin, A., Galbraith, M. E., Schwankovsky, L., & Cruzen, D. (1993). Maintaining perception of control: Finding perceived control in low-control circumstances. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 64, 293-304.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Throne, A. (2000). Personal memory telling and personality development. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 5, 45-56.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Tierney, P., & Farmer, S. M. (2002). Creative self-efficacy: Its potential antecedents and relationship to creative performance. Academy of Management Journal, 45, 1137-1148.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Turner, H. A., & Butler, M. J. (2003). Direct and indirect effect of childhood adversity on depressive symptoms in young adults. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 89-103.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Turner, M. E. (2001). The dilemma of threat: Group effectiveness and ineffectiveness under adversity. In M. E. Turner (Ed), Groups at work: Theory and research (pp.445-470). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Association, Publishers.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Turner, R. J., & Lloyd, D. A. (2003) Cumulative adversity and drug dependence in young adults: Racial/ethnic contrasts. Addiction, 98, 305-315.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Undewood, M. K., Coie, J. D., & Herbsman, C. R. (1992). Display rules for anger and aggression in school-age children. Child Development, 63, 366-380.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Van Harte, E. (1995). Thriving in the midst of repression: A South African experiences. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Psychological Association, New York.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1982). Vulnerable but invincible: A study of resilient children. New York: McGraw-Hill.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Werner, E. E., & Smith, R. S. (1992). Overcoming the odds: High risk children from birth to adulthood. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Wholey, D. (1992). When the worst that can happen already has: Conquering life’s most difficult times. New York: Hyperion.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Williams, M. W. (2003). The relationship between principal response to adversity and student achievement. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Cardinal Stritch University.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Woike, B. A. (1994a). The use of differentiation and integration processes: Empirical studies of “separate’’ and “connected’’ ways of thinking. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 67, 142-150.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Woike, B. A., (1994b). Vivid recollection as a technique to arouse implicit motive related affect. Motivation and emotion, 18, 335-349.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Woike, B. A., Gershkovich, I., Piorkowski, R., ＆ Polo, M. (1999). The role of personality motives in the content and structure of autobiographical memories. Journal of Personality and Social psychology, 76, 600-612.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Woike, B. A., & Matic, D. (2004). Cognitive complexity in response to traumatic experiences. Journal of Personality, 72, 632-657.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Woike, B. A., Mcleod, S., & Goggin, M. (2003). Implicit and explicit motives influence accessability to different autobiographical memories. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 29, 1046-1055.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Wortman, C. B., & Brehm, J. W. (1975). Response to uncontrollable outcomes: An integra- tion of reactance theory and the learned helplessness model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology, (vol. 8). New York: Academic Press.	zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻)	Wyman, P. A., & Forbes, J. E. L. (2001). Creative adaptation to life adversity: Deriving meaning from the past and expectations for the future. In T. P., Gullotta & M. Bloom (Ed), Promoting creativity across the life span (pp.157-190). Washington: Child Welfare League of America, Inc.	zh_TW

Publications-Theses

Article View/Open

Publication Export

Google ScholarTM

NCCU Library

Citation Infomation

Related Publications in TAIR

Google Scholar^TM