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題名 選舉制度與結果的比例性偏差：以台灣立法委員選舉制度為例（1992-2008）
The disproportionality of electoral system: the case of legislative election in Taiwan (1992-2008)
作者 張佑丞
Chang, Yu-Cheng
貢獻者 隋杜卿
Swei, Duh-Ching
張佑丞
Chang, Yu-Cheng
關鍵詞 選舉制度
杜瓦傑法則
比例性偏差
複席單記非讓渡投票制
並立式混合制
聯立式混合制
Electoral System
Duverger’s Law
Disproportionality
SNTV-MMD
MMM
MMP
日期 2008
上傳時間 19-Sep-2009 14:02:49 (UTC+8)
摘要 選舉制度的設計與評估，主要有兩方面的考量，一是可治理性；二是分配的比例性。以台灣的情況為例，新選制的選舉結果，理論上政府的運作將趨向穩定；相較之下，在制度替換的過程中，改革者通常只看見舊制度的缺失，舊制度本身所具有的優點－比例性，在改革過程中往往被忽視。本文的研究目的即是重拾對比例性的視野，透過Loosemore-Hanby D指數測量選制改革前後的比例性偏差程度，檢視1992至2008年間比例性偏差數值的變化，並從五個面向－選區規模、席次分配、法定門檻、席次總數、選票結構－解釋比例性偏差發生的原因，發現所有的選制設計皆不利於比例性，導致新選制的比例性偏差與舊制度產生極大的落差。

此外，透過比較其他可能的比例性狀況可以發現，無論是聯立制的模擬或是票源模擬的結果，皆顯示有助於提升小黨的代表性；另一方面，同樣採用並立制的日本，四次的選舉經驗可以做為我國參考的對象，但是由於選舉制度的各項要素不盡相同，也使得兩國選舉結果的比例性和小黨代表性呈現差異性。

最後，混合制固然同時融合了相對多數決制和比例代表制的特性，但是由於制度上選制要素以及非制度上國情與社會狀況的不同，很難期待一個完美的選舉制度出現，因此，我們只能尋求一個理想的選舉制度，且善用混合制所具有的彈性，做出適度的調整。
Upon the evaluation of an electoral system, the main concerns are the governability and proportionality. In Taiwan’s case, the electoral system of Legislative Yuan altered from SNTV to mixed-member system; however, the reformers invariably accentuated the stability of governance but ignored the semi-proportionality of SNTV. Hence, the result of election in 2008 got unbalance between governability and proportionality. This article tends to measure the degree of disproportionality by Loosemore-Hanby index from 1992 to 2008 and tries to explain how disproportionality occurred from five dimensions－district magnitude, levels of seat allocation, threshold, number of total seats, and ballot structure.

In addition, the results could be quite different when it compared with of other situations. According to this paper, the representation of small parties and the degree of proportionality will be enhanced while adopting MMP and redistributing the votes. Moreover, this paper is going to make a comparative study with Japan which have adopted MMM and have experienced four times elections since 1996.

Finally, although mixed systems combine some features of both plurality and PR, there is still no perfect electoral system in the world. However, by making good use of flexibility of mixed systems, we might have an “ideal” system which can be regularly updated to suit changing needs and political conditions.
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描述 碩士
國立政治大學
國家發展研究所
96261008
97
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0962610081
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 隋杜卿zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Swei, Duh-Chingen_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 張佑丞zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Chang, Yu-Chengen_US
dc.creator (作者) 張佑丞zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Chang, Yu-Chengen_US
dc.date (日期) 2008en_US
dc.date.accessioned 19-Sep-2009 14:02:49 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 19-Sep-2009 14:02:49 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 19-Sep-2009 14:02:49 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0962610081en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/37492-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國家發展研究所zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 96261008zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 97zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 選舉制度的設計與評估，主要有兩方面的考量，一是可治理性；二是分配的比例性。以台灣的情況為例，新選制的選舉結果，理論上政府的運作將趨向穩定；相較之下，在制度替換的過程中，改革者通常只看見舊制度的缺失，舊制度本身所具有的優點－比例性，在改革過程中往往被忽視。本文的研究目的即是重拾對比例性的視野，透過Loosemore-Hanby D指數測量選制改革前後的比例性偏差程度，檢視1992至2008年間比例性偏差數值的變化，並從五個面向－選區規模、席次分配、法定門檻、席次總數、選票結構－解釋比例性偏差發生的原因，發現所有的選制設計皆不利於比例性，導致新選制的比例性偏差與舊制度產生極大的落差。

此外，透過比較其他可能的比例性狀況可以發現，無論是聯立制的模擬或是票源模擬的結果，皆顯示有助於提升小黨的代表性；另一方面，同樣採用並立制的日本，四次的選舉經驗可以做為我國參考的對象，但是由於選舉制度的各項要素不盡相同，也使得兩國選舉結果的比例性和小黨代表性呈現差異性。

最後，混合制固然同時融合了相對多數決制和比例代表制的特性，但是由於制度上選制要素以及非制度上國情與社會狀況的不同，很難期待一個完美的選舉制度出現，因此，我們只能尋求一個理想的選舉制度，且善用混合制所具有的彈性，做出適度的調整。		zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) Upon the evaluation of an electoral system, the main concerns are the governability and proportionality. In Taiwan’s case, the electoral system of Legislative Yuan altered from SNTV to mixed-member system; however, the reformers invariably accentuated the stability of governance but ignored the semi-proportionality of SNTV. Hence, the result of election in 2008 got unbalance between governability and proportionality. This article tends to measure the degree of disproportionality by Loosemore-Hanby index from 1992 to 2008 and tries to explain how disproportionality occurred from five dimensions－district magnitude, levels of seat allocation, threshold, number of total seats, and ballot structure.

In addition, the results could be quite different when it compared with of other situations. According to this paper, the representation of small parties and the degree of proportionality will be enhanced while adopting MMP and redistributing the votes. Moreover, this paper is going to make a comparative study with Japan which have adopted MMM and have experienced four times elections since 1996.

Finally, although mixed systems combine some features of both plurality and PR, there is still no perfect electoral system in the world. However, by making good use of flexibility of mixed systems, we might have an “ideal” system which can be regularly updated to suit changing needs and political conditions.		en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents 第一章 緒論……………………………………………………………………1
第一節 研究動機與目的…………………………………………………1
第二節 研究途徑與方法…………………………………………………5
第三節 分析架構…………………………………………………………9
第四節 研究範圍與限制 ……………………………………………… 10
第五節 章節安排 ……………………………………………………… 13

第二章 文獻檢閱：選舉研究中的比例性…………………………………16
第一節 比例性概念的界定………………………………………………16
第二節 比例性作為研究選舉制度之變項………………………………21
第三節 各種選制對比例性的相關探討…………………………………24
第四節 比例性偏差在方法論上的測量…………………………………36
第五節 小結：研究假設的確立…………………………………………41

第三章 制度運作與影響：台灣立委選舉制度的比例性……………………43
第一節 台灣立委選制改革的背景與過程………………………………43
第二節 新舊選制比例性之比較：方法論上的探討……………………52
第三節 小結：研究假設的驗證…………………………………………69

第四章 制度模擬與比較：其他可能的比例性結果…………………………72
第一節 總體資料之制度與選票模擬……………………………………84
第二節 「混合式多數決制」的實踐情況：日本的經驗 ………………89
第三節 小結 ……………………………………………………………104

第五章 結論 …………………………………………………………………106
第一節 研究發現 ………………………………………………………106
第二節 研究建議與結論 ………………………………………………112

參考文獻 …………………………………………………………………………114

附錄		zh_TW
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dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0962610081en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 選舉制度zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 杜瓦傑法則zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 比例性偏差zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 複席單記非讓渡投票制zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 並立式混合制zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 聯立式混合制zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Electoral Systemen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Duverger’s Lawen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Disproportionalityen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) SNTV-MMDen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) MMMen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) MMPen_US
dc.title (題名) 選舉制度與結果的比例性偏差：以台灣立法委員選舉制度為例（1992-2008）zh_TW
dc.title (題名) The disproportionality of electoral system: the case of legislative election in Taiwan (1992-2008)en_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen
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dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 游清鑫（2000），〈選舉機制與民主化〉，「兩岸立法制度」學術研討會（國立政治大學政治學系、中山人文社會科學研究所主辦），7月22日，台北。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 游清鑫（2003），〈單一選區兩票制：成分與政治影響〉，收錄於社團法人台灣法學會主編，《台灣法學新課題（四）》，台北：元照，頁1-30。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 隋杜卿（2002），〈立委選制改革對政治運作之影響─以「單一選區兩票制」為例〉，收錄於陳建民、周育仁主編，《國會改革與憲政發展》，台北：國家政策研究基金會，頁143-189。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 隋杜卿（2003），〈「單一選區」選制改革對比例性的影響：第五屆立法委員投票結果的模擬〉，「憲政民主與國家發展」學術研討會（國立政治大學中山人文社會科學研究所主辦），6月24日，台北。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 黃秀端（2000），〈選民的策略投票：單一選區與SNTV制度的比較〉，「台灣政治學會第七屆年會」（國立中山大學政治學研究所主辦），高雄。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 黃德福（1993），〈選舉制度與政黨政治─台灣地區解嚴後選舉競爭的觀察〉，《理論與政策》，第7卷，第4期，頁3-21。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 楊鈞池（2005），〈一九九○年代日本選舉制度改革及其影響之分析〉，《高大法學論叢》，頁3-50。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 潘誠財（2007），〈日本眾議院新選舉制度對政黨體系形成之影響─1996~2005眾議院選舉之分析〉，《復興崗學報》，頁411-438。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 蔡子強（1997），〈第八章 選舉制度與投票行為〉，收錄於鄭宇碩、羅金義，《政治學新論：西方學理與中華經驗》，香港：中文大學，頁171-196。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 蔡佳泓等（2008），〈選制變遷對政黨體系之影響評估：變異量結構模型之探討〉，「如何評估選制變遷：方法論的探討」學術研討會（國立政治大學選舉研究中心主辦），台北。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 蔡增家（2004），《日本轉型：九○年之後政治經濟體制的轉變》，台北：五南。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 蔡學儀（2003），《解析單一選區兩票制》，台北：五南。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 鄭夙芬（2008），〈選民對新選制的認知與評價：焦點團體研究法的運用〉，「如何評估選制變遷：方法論的探討」學術研討會（國立政治大學選舉研究中心主辦），台北。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 鄧志松等（2008），〈選區劃分與席位扭曲：第六、七屆立委選舉為例〉，「台灣政治學會年會暨研討會」（國立暨南國際大學主辦），南投。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 謝相慶（1999），〈日本眾議院議員新選舉制度及其政治效應─以1996年選舉為例〉，《選舉研究》，第6卷，第2期，頁45-87。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 謝復生（1992），《政黨比例代表制》，台北：理論與政策雜誌社。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 三、譯著zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Dahl, Robert A.原著；李柏光、林猛合譯（1999），《論民主》，台北：聯經。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Neuman, W. Lawrence原著；王佳煌等合譯（2002），《當代社會硏究法 : 質化與量化途徑》，臺北市 : 學富文化。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Nohlen, Dieter (1996), 〈拉丁美洲的選舉制度與選舉改革〉, Arend Lijphart and Carlos H. Waisman (eds.),《新興民主國家的憲政選擇》，蔡熊山、陳駿德、陳景堯譯，1999，第三章，台北：韋伯文化。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 沖野安春原著；曹瑞泰譯（2000），《現代日本政治：制度與選舉過程》，台北：國立編譯館。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 四、報紙資料zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 中時晚報，1995年1月2日，2版。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 自立早報，1995年10月25日，2版。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 青年日報，1995年10月25日，2版。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 聯合晚報，1995年12月6日，1版。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 中央日報，1995年12月7日，2版。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 五、英文書目zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Balinski, Michel L. and H. Peyton Young (1982), Fair Representation, New Haven: Yale University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Blais, Andre and R. K. Carty (1991), “The Psychological Impact of Electoral Laws: Measuring Duverger’s Elusive Factor,” British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 79-93.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Butler, David (1995), British General Elections since 1945, Cambridge, Mass.: Blackwell.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Carstairs, A. McLaren (1980), A Short History of Electoral Systems in Western Europe, London: George Allen & Unwin.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Cox, Gary W. (1991), “SNTV and d’Hondt are ‘Equivalent’,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. 118-132.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Cox, Gary W. (1996), “Is the Single Nontransferable Vote Superproportional? Evidence from Japan and Taiwan,” American Journal of Political Science, Vol. 40, No. 3, pp. 740-755.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Cox, Gary W. and Emerson Niou (1994), “Seat Bonuses under the Single Non-Transferable Vote System: Evidence from Japan and Taiwan,” Comparative politics, Vol. 26, No. 2, pp. 221-236.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Cox, Gary W. and Frances Rosenbluth (1993), “The Electoral Fortunes of Legislative Factions in Japan,” The American Political Science Review, Vol. 87, No. 3, pp. 577-589zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Cox, Gary W. and Leonard J. Schoppa (2002), “Interaction Effects in Mixed-Member Electoral Systems: Theory and Evidence from Germany, Japan, and Italy,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 35, No. 9, pp. 1027-1053.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Dunleavy, Patrick and Helen Margetts (1995), “Understanding the Dynamics of Electoral Reform,” International Political Science Review, Vol. 16, No. 1, pp. 9-29.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Duverger, Maurice (1955), Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State, Translated by Barbara and Robert North, New York: Wiley.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Duverger, Maurice (1984), “Which Is the Best Electoral System?” in Arend Lijphart and B. Grofman, Choosing an Electoral System: Issues and Alternatives, New York: Praeger, pp. 31-39.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Duverger, Maurice (1986), “Duverger’s Law: Forty Years Later,” in B. Grofman and A. Lijphart (eds.), Electoral Law and Their Political Consequences, New York: Agathon Press, pp. 69-84.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Farrell, David M. (1997), Comparing Electoral Systems, New York: Prentice Hall.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Farrell, David M. (2001), Electoral Systems: A Comparative Introduction, New York: Palgrave.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Ferrara, Federico (2004), “Electoral Coordination and the Strategic Desertion of Strong Parties in Compensatory Mixed Systems with Negative Vote Transfers,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 23, No. 3, pp. 391-413.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Ferrara, Federico, Erik S. Herron, and Misa Nishikawa (2005), Mixed Electoral Systems: Contamination and Its Consequences, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Gallagher, Michael (1991), “Proportionality, Disproportionality and Electoral Systems,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 10, No. 1, pp. 33-51.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Gallagher, Michael and Paul Mitchell (2005), “Introduction to Electoral Systems,” in Michael Gallagher and Paul Mitchell, The Politics of Electoral Systems, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 3-23.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Golder, Matt (2005), “Democratic Electoral Systems around the World, 1946-2000,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 103-121.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Grofman, Bernard (1999a), “SNTV, STV, and Single-Member-District Systems: Theoretical Comparisons and Contrasts,” in B. Grofman (eds.), Election in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan under the Single Non-Transferable Vote: The Comparative Study of an Embedded Institution, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, pp. 317-333.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Grofman, Bernard (1999b), “SNTV: An Inventory of Theoretically Derived Propositions and a Brief Review of the Evidence from Japan, Korea, Taiwan, and Alabama,” in B. Grofman (eds.), Election in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan under the Single Non-Transferable Vote: The Comparative Study of an Embedded Institution, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, pp. 375-416.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Hsieh, John Fuh-sheng (1996), “The SNTV System and It’s Political Implications,” in Hung-mao Tien (eds.), Taiwan`s Electoral Politics and Democratic Transition: Riding the Third Wave, New York: M.E. Sharpe, pp. 193-212.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Hsieh, John Fuh-sheng (1999), “Manipulating the Electoral System under the SNTV: The Case of the Republic of China,” in B. Grofman (eds.), Election in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan under the Single Non-Transferable Vote: The Comparative Study of an Embedded Institution, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, pp. 65-84.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Hsieh, John Fuh-sheng (2002), “Continuity and Change in Taiwan’s Electoral Politics,” in John Fuh-sheng Hsieh and David Newman (eds.), How Asia Votes, New York: Chatham House Publishers, Seven Bridges Press, pp. 32-49.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Hurwitz, Leon (1971), “An Index of Democratic Political Stability: A Methodological Note,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 4, No. 1 (April), pp. 41-68.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Johnston, R. J. and C. J. Pattie (2002), “Campaigning and Split-Ticket Voting in New Electoral Systems: the First MMP Election in New Zealand, Scotland and Wales,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 21, No. 4, pp. 583-600.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Kaase, Max (1984), “Personalized Proportional Representation: The “Model” of the West German Electoral System,” in Arend Lijphart and B. Grofman, Choosing an electoral system: issues and alternatives, New York: Praeger, pp. 155-164.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Katz, Richard (1980), A Theory of Parties and Electoral Systems, Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Katz, Richard (2005), “Why Are There So Many (or So Few) Electoral Reforms?” Michael Gallagher and Paul Mitchell, The Politics of Electoral Systems. Oxford, U.K.: Oxford University Press, pp. 57-76.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Kendall, M. G. and A. Stuart (1950), “The Law of the Cubic Proportion in Election Results,” The British Journal of Sociology, Vol. 1, No. 3, pp. 183-196.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Kostadinova, Tatiana (2002), “Do Mixed Electoral Systems Matter?: A Cross-National Analysis of Their Effects in Eastern Europe,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 21, No. 1, pp. 23-34.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Laakso, Markku (1979), “Should a Two-and-a-Half Law Replace the Cube Law in British Elections?” British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 9, No. 3, pp. 355-362.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Laakso, Markku and Rein Taagepera(1979), “Effective Number of Parties: A Measure with Application to West Europe,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol. 12, pp. 3-27.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lakeman, Enid and James D. Lambert (1955), Voting in Democracies: A Study of the Majority and Proportional Electoral Systems, London: Faber and Faber.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lijphart, Arend (1984a), “Trying to Have the Best of Both Worlds: Semi-Proportional and Mixed Systems,” in Arend Lijphart and B. Grofman, Choosing an Electoral System: Issues and Alternatives, New York: Praeger, pp. 207-213.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lijphart, Arend (1984b), Democracy: Patterns of Majoritarian and Consensus of Government in Twenty-One Countries, New Haven, CT: Yale University.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lijphart, Arend (1994), Electoral Systems and Party Systems: A Study of Twenty-seven Democracies, 1945-1990. New York: Oxford University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lijphart, Arend (1997), “The Difficult Science of Electoral Systems: A Commentary on the Critique by Alberto Penades,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 16, No. 17, pp. 73-77.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lijphart, Arend (1999), “SNTV and STV Compared: Their Political Consequences in Japan, Ireland, and Malta,” in B. Grofman (eds.), Election in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan under the Single Non-Transferable Vote: The Comparative Study of an Embedded Institution, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, pp. 289-299.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lijphart, Arend and Robert W. Gibberd (1977), “Thresholds and Payoffs in List Systems of Proportional Representation,” European Journal of Political Research, Vol. 5, No. 3, pp. 219-244.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lijphart, Arend, Rafael Lopez Pintor, and Yasunori (1986), “The Limited Vote and the Single Nontransferable Vote: Lessons from the Japanese and Spanish Examples,” in B. Grofman and A. Lijphart (eds.), Electoral Law and Their Political Consequences, New York: Agathon Press, pp. 154-169.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lin, Tse-min, Feng-yu Lee, and Chin-en Wu (2009), “The Spatial Organization of Elections and the Cube Law: Taiwan’s 2008 Legislative Elections,” in Taiwan’s Election and Democratization Study International Conference, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Liu, I-Chou (1999), “Campaigning in an SNTV System: The Case of the Kuomintang in Taiwan,” in B. Grofman (eds.), Election in Japan, Korea, and Taiwan under the Single Non-Transferable Vote: The Comparative Study of an Embedded Institution, Michigan: The University of Michigan Press, pp. 181-208.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Loosemore, John and Victor J. Hanby (1971), “The Theoretical Limits of Maximum Distortion: Some Analytic Expressions for Electoral Systems,” British Journal of Political Science, Vol. 1, No. 4, pp. 467-477.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Mackie, Thomas and Richard Rose (1991), The International Almanac Electoral History, Washington D.C.: Congressional Quarterly.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Massicotte, Louis and Andre Blais (1999), “Mixed Electoral System: A Conceptual and Empirical Survey,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 18, pp. 341-366.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Moser, Robert G. and Ethan Scheiner (2004), “Mixed Electoral Systems and Electoral System Effect: Controlled Comparison and Cross-National Analysis,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 23, pp. 575-599.zh_TW
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dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Norris, Pippa (1997), “Choosing Electoral Systems: Proportional, Majoritarian and Mixed System,” International Political Science Review, Vol. 18, No. 3, pp.297-312.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Norris, Pippa (2004), Electoral engineering: voting rules and political behavior, New York: Cambridge University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Rae, Dogulas (1967), The political consequences of electoral laws, New Haven: Yale University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Rae, Dogulas, et al. (1971), “Thresholds of Representation and Thresholds of Exclution,” Comparative Political Studies, Vol.3, pp. 479-488.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Reed, Steven R. (2005), “Japan: Haltingly Towards a Two-Party System,” in Michael Gallagher and Paul Mitchell, The Politics of Electoral Systems, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 277-293.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Reed, Steven R. and Michael F. Thies (2001), “The Consequences of Electoral Reform in Japan,” in Matthew S. Shugart and Martin P. Wattenberg, Mixed-Member Electoral Systems: The Best of Both Worlds? Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 380-403.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Reeve, Andrew and Alan Ware (1992), Electoral Systems: A Comparative and Theoretical Introduction, New York: Routledge.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Riedwyl, Hans and Jurg Steiner (1995), “What Is Proportionality Anyhow?” Comparative Politics, Vol.27, No.3, pp. 357-369.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Riker, William H. (1982), “The Two-Party System and Duverger’s Law: An Essay on the History of Political Science,” The American Political Science Association, Vol. 76, No. 4, pp. 753-766.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Riker, William H. (1986), “Duverger’s Law Revisited,” in B. Grofman and A. Lijphart (eds.), Electoral Law and Their Political Consequences, New York: Agathon Press, pp. 19-42.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Rose, Richard (1984), “Electoral System: A Question of Degree or of Principle?” in Arend Lijphart and B. Grofman, Choosing an electoral system: issues and alternatives, New York: Praeger Publishers, pp. 73-81.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Schaap, Ross D. (2005), “The House of Representatives’ election in Japan, November 2003,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp. 123-160.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Shugart, Matthew S. (2005), “Comparative Electoral Systems Research: The Maturation of Field and New Challenges Ahead,” in Michael Gallagher and Paul Mitchell, The Politics of Electoral Systems, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 25-55.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Shugart, Matthew S. and Wattenberg (2001), Mixed-Member Electoral Systems: The Best of Both Worlds? Oxford: Oxford University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Taagepera, Rein (1984), “The Effect of District Magnitude and Properties of Two-Seat Districts,” in Arend Lijphart and B. Grofman, Choosing an electoral system: issues and alternatives, New York: Praeger Publishers, pp. 91-101.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Taagepera, Rein (1998), “Effective Magnitude and Effective Threshold,” Electoral Studies, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp. 393-404.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Taagepera, Rein and Matthew S. Shugart (1989), Seats and Votes: The Effects and Determinants of Electoral Systems. New Haven: Yale University Press.zh_TW
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