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題名 促發歸屬感與一歲半嬰兒的助人行為
Helping following priming with affiliation in 18-month-old infants.作者 何怡靜 貢獻者 姜忠信
何怡靜關鍵詞 助人行為
歸屬感
嬰兒
內隱圖片
helping behavior
affiliation
infants
implicit photos日期 2011 上傳時間 30-Oct-2012 11:27:23 (UTC+8) 摘要 過去研究發現助人行為是促進自己與他人建立友好關係，使得雙方產生對彼此有歸屬感的一種策略。然而，對於嬰兒而言，由於其助人行為能力正在發展，我們很難於自然情境中得知他們是否會為尋求此歸屬感，而促發其助人行為。因此，本研究之目的為探討嬰兒的助人行為是否會受到與他人建立友好關係的歸屬感而影響。本研究藉由兩個實驗來探討。實驗一藉由觀察60位18個月大嬰兒在接受不同認知意涵的內隱圖片促發其歸屬感後，進入助人任務的助人行為表現。實驗結果發現接受在一起性質圖片的18個月大嬰兒，並未因圖片促發其助人行為來維繫其歸屬感。為排除助人任務性質可能造成的干擾因素，實驗二調整了實驗一的助人任務後，在相同條件下進行觀察嬰兒的助人行為表現。結果發現雖然在一起性質的內隱圖片仍未促發其歸屬感而引發助人行為，但若將圖片分類方式改為知覺層級，將具有成對性質的內隱圖片（在一起、背對背與基準）與接受單獨性質圖片比較後卻發現，18個月大的嬰兒在特定時間區段（0至20秒、0至30秒）中有顯著較多的助人行為。此結果說明知覺層級上的刺激能夠穩定的促發18個月大嬰兒的歸屬感，進而引發其助人行為。
Previous studies propose that helping behaviors can be an effective strategy for establishing friendly relationship and affiliation with others. However, for eighteen-month-old infants, the ability of helping is under development. Hence, it is difficult to evaluate whether they pursuit affiliation by helping others, especially in natural conditions. In this thesis, two controlled experiments were conducted to understand whether the helping behaviors can be evoked by priming. In the first experiment, sixty eighteen-month-old infants were recruited and primed by several implicit photos to evoke their tendency of affiliation and to measure the influence of the primes. Results show that the primes do not significantly evoke the subjects to perform more helping behaviors in both conditions: primed by the photos imply together and primed by other photos (back-to-back, baseline, and alone). To exclude the possible interferences of the previous helping tasks, the second experiment undertook the same procedures and settings with the first experiment, but modified the task to clarify the needs of helping. Results reveal that the difference of priming effect is still insignificant between together and others. However, if the photos are grouped by the easier-perceivable meaning: representing photos having two objects as together, and representing photos having only one object as individuality, the significance of priming can be observed. Subjects primed by together photos performed significantly more helping than those primed with individuality photos in specific periods (0-20s and 0-30s). Based on these findings, this study suggests that the perceptual stimulus can stably evoke affiliation of eighteen-month-old infants, and influence the tendency of helping others.參考文獻 Axelrod, R., & Hamilton, W. (1981). The evolution of cooperation. Science, 211, 1390-1396.Brewer, M. B. (2007). The importance of being we: Human nature and intergroup relations. American Psychologist, 62, 728-738.Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.Brownell, C. A., Svetlova, M., & Nichols, S. (2009). To share or not to share:When do toddlers respond to another’s needs? Infancy, 14, 117–130.Bullinger, A. F., Zimmermann, F., Kaminski, J., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Different social motives in the gestural communication of chimpanzees and human children. Developmental Science, 14, 58-68.Caporael, L. R. (2001). Evolutionary psychology: Toward a unifying theory and a hybrid science. Annual Review of Psychology, 1 , 276-298.Coleman, P. K., & Byrd, C. P. (2003). Interpersonal correlates of peer victimization among young adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 301-314.Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. London: John Murray.Dekovic, M., & Janssens, J. M. A. M. (1992). Parents’ child-rearing style and children’s sociometric status. Developmental Psychology, 28, 925–932.Dunfield, K., Kuhlmeier, V. A., O’Connell, L., & Kelley, E. (2011). Examining the diversity of prosocial behavior: Helping, sharing, and comforting in infancy. Infancy, 16, 227-247.Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial Development. In J. Wiley & Sons (Eds.). Handbook of Child Psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 647-718). New York: Wiley Press.Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Karbon, M., Murphy, B. C., Wosinski, M., Polazzi, L., Juhnke,C. (1996). The relations of children’s dispositional prosocial behavior to emotionality, regulation, and social functioning. Child Development, 67, 974–992.Falck-Ytter, T., Gredeback, G., & von Hofsten, C. (2006). Infants predict other people’s action goals. Nature Neuroscience, 9, 878-879.Feinman, S. (1982). Social referencing in infancy. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 28, 445-470.Grusec, J. E., Davidov, M., & Lundell, L. (2002). Prosocial and helping behavior. In P. Smith and C. Hart (eds.). Blackwell handbook of childhood social development (pp.457-474). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Gintis, H., Bowles, S., Boyd, R., & Fehr, E. (2003). Explaining altruistic behavior in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 153-172.Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biolovy, 7, 1-16.Hay, D. P. (1979). Cooperative interactions and sharing between very young children and their parents. Developmental Psychology, 15, 647-65.Hampson, R. B. (1984). Adolescent prosocial behavior: Peer group and situational factors associated with helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 153–162.Hay, D. E., Caplan, M., Castle, J., & Stimson, C. A. (1991). Does sharing become increasingly more rational in the second year of life? Developmental Psychology, 27, 987-993.Kartner, J., Keller, H., & Chaudhary, N. (2010). Cognitive and social influences on early prosocial behavior in two sociocultural contexts. Developmental Psychology, 46(4), 905-914.Kim, G., Walden, T. A., & Knieps, L. (2010). Impact and characteristics of positive and fearful emotional messages during infant social referencing. Infant Behavior and Development, 33, 189-195.Lakin, J. L., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport. Psychological Science, 14,334-339.Liszkowski, U., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Individual differences in social, cognitive, and morphological aspects of infant pointing. Cognitive Development, 26 (1), 16-29.Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2008). Twelve-month-olds communicate helpfully and appropriately for knowledgeable and ignorant partners. Cognition, 108, 732-739.Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., Striano, T., & Tomasello, M. (2006). 12-and 18-month-olds point to provide infornation for others. Journal of Cognition and Development, 7, 173-187.Lakin, J. L., Jefferis, V. E., Cheng, C. M., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). The chameleon effect as social glue: Evidence for the evolutionary significance of nonconscious mimicry. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 145-163.Levitt, M. J., Weber, R. A., Clark, M. C., & McDonnell,P. (1985). Reciprocity of exchange in toddler sharing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 21, 122-123.McGuire, K. D., & Weisz, J. R. (1982). Social cognition and behavior correlates of preadolescent chumship. Child Development, 53, 1478-1484.Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2009a). Eighteen-month-old infants show increased helping following priming with affiliation. Psychological Science, 20, 1189-1193.Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2009b). Priming third-party ostracism increases affiliative imitation in children. Developmental Science, 12, 1-8.Pan, Z., & Kosicki, G. M. (1997). Priming and media impact on the evaluations of the president’s performance. Communication Research, 24(1), 3-30.Triver, R. L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 46, 35-57.Tomasello, M. (2008). Origins of human communication. MIT Press.Tomasello, M., & Carpenter, M. (2007). Shared intentionality. Developmental Science, 10, 121-125. Rheingold, H. L. (1982). Little children’s participation in the work of adults, a nascent prosocial behavior. Child Development, 53, 114-125.Rovee-Collier, C., Hankins, E., & Bhatt, R. (1992). Textons, visual pop-out effects, and object recognition in infancy. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 121(4), 435-445.Raviv, A., Bar-Tal, D., Ayalon, H., & Raviv, A. (1980). Perceptions of giving and receiving help by group members. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 11, 139–150.Takahashi, K. (1986). Examining the strange-situation procedure with Japanese mothers and 12-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology, 22(2), 265-270.Sebanc, A. M. (2003). The friendship features of preschool children: Links with prosocial behavior and aggression. Social Development, 12, 249-268.Sagi, A., Van IJzendorn, M. H., & Koren-Karie, N. (1991). Primary appraisal of the strange situation: a cross-cultural analysis of preseparation episodes. Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 587-596.Van IJzendorn, M. H., & Kroonenberg, P. M. (1988). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analysis of the Strange Situation. Child Development, 59, 147-156.Vaish, A., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Sympathy through affective perspective taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers. Developmental Psychology, 45, 534-543.Vitaro, F., Gagnon, C., & Tremblay, R. E. (1990). Predicting stable peer rejection from kindergarten to Grade one. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 257-264.Woodward, A. L. (1998). Infants selectively encode the goal of an actor’s reach. Cognition, 69,1-34.Woodward, A. L., & Guajardo, J. J. (2002). Infants’ understanding of the point gesture as an object-directed action. Cognitive Development, 17, 1061-1084.Walden, T. A., & Kim, G. (2005). Infants’ social looking toward mothers and strangers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 356-360.Warden, D., & Mackinnon, S. (2003). Prosocial bullies, bullies, and victims: An investigation of their sociometric status, empathy, and social problem-solving strategies. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21, 367-385.Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 311, 1301-1303.Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Helping and cooperation at 14 months of age. Infancy, 11, 271–294.Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009a). The roots of human altruism. British Journal of Psychology, 100, 455-471.Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009b). Varieties of altruism in children and chimpanzees. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 13, 397-401.Zahn-Waxler, C., Radlke-Yarrow, M., Wagner, E., & Chapman, M. (1992). Development of concern for others. Developmental Psychology, 28, 126-136. 描述 碩士
國立政治大學
心理學研究所
98752022
100資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0098752022 資料類型 thesis dc.contributor.advisor 姜忠信 zh_TW dc.contributor.author (Authors) 何怡靜 zh_TW dc.creator (作者) 何怡靜 zh_TW dc.date (日期) 2011 en_US dc.date.accessioned 30-Oct-2012 11:27:23 (UTC+8) - dc.date.available 30-Oct-2012 11:27:23 (UTC+8) - dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 30-Oct-2012 11:27:23 (UTC+8) - dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0098752022 en_US dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/54641 - dc.description (描述) 碩士 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 心理學研究所 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 98752022 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 100 zh_TW dc.description.abstract (摘要) 過去研究發現助人行為是促進自己與他人建立友好關係，使得雙方產生對彼此有歸屬感的一種策略。然而，對於嬰兒而言，由於其助人行為能力正在發展，我們很難於自然情境中得知他們是否會為尋求此歸屬感，而促發其助人行為。因此，本研究之目的為探討嬰兒的助人行為是否會受到與他人建立友好關係的歸屬感而影響。本研究藉由兩個實驗來探討。實驗一藉由觀察60位18個月大嬰兒在接受不同認知意涵的內隱圖片促發其歸屬感後，進入助人任務的助人行為表現。實驗結果發現接受在一起性質圖片的18個月大嬰兒，並未因圖片促發其助人行為來維繫其歸屬感。為排除助人任務性質可能造成的干擾因素，實驗二調整了實驗一的助人任務後，在相同條件下進行觀察嬰兒的助人行為表現。結果發現雖然在一起性質的內隱圖片仍未促發其歸屬感而引發助人行為，但若將圖片分類方式改為知覺層級，將具有成對性質的內隱圖片（在一起、背對背與基準）與接受單獨性質圖片比較後卻發現，18個月大的嬰兒在特定時間區段（0至20秒、0至30秒）中有顯著較多的助人行為。此結果說明知覺層級上的刺激能夠穩定的促發18個月大嬰兒的歸屬感，進而引發其助人行為。 zh_TW dc.description.abstract (摘要) Previous studies propose that helping behaviors can be an effective strategy for establishing friendly relationship and affiliation with others. However, for eighteen-month-old infants, the ability of helping is under development. Hence, it is difficult to evaluate whether they pursuit affiliation by helping others, especially in natural conditions. In this thesis, two controlled experiments were conducted to understand whether the helping behaviors can be evoked by priming. In the first experiment, sixty eighteen-month-old infants were recruited and primed by several implicit photos to evoke their tendency of affiliation and to measure the influence of the primes. Results show that the primes do not significantly evoke the subjects to perform more helping behaviors in both conditions: primed by the photos imply together and primed by other photos (back-to-back, baseline, and alone). To exclude the possible interferences of the previous helping tasks, the second experiment undertook the same procedures and settings with the first experiment, but modified the task to clarify the needs of helping. Results reveal that the difference of priming effect is still insignificant between together and others. However, if the photos are grouped by the easier-perceivable meaning: representing photos having two objects as together, and representing photos having only one object as individuality, the significance of priming can be observed. Subjects primed by together photos performed significantly more helping than those primed with individuality photos in specific periods (0-20s and 0-30s). Based on these findings, this study suggests that the perceptual stimulus can stably evoke affiliation of eighteen-month-old infants, and influence the tendency of helping others. en_US dc.description.tableofcontents 第一章 緒論 0第二章 文獻回顧 2第一節 歸屬感與助人行為的關係 2第二節 嬰幼兒助人行為的發展 5一、安慰他人的情緒 5二、與他人分享食物或物品 7三、提供他人有用訊息 9四、工具性幫助 13五、小結 15第三節 歸屬感與嬰兒助人行為的關係 17一、兒童助人行為與其歸屬感的關係 17二、歸屬感與嬰兒助人行為的關係 18第四節 研究目的與假設 22第三章 實驗一 25第一節 研究方法 25一、受試者 25二、研究材料及環境設計 26三、研究設計 30四、計分與信度 32第二節 研究結果 34一、前導分析 34二、不同情境嬰兒的助人任務表現 34第三節 討論 36第四章 實驗二 39第一節 研究方法 39一、研究對象 39二、研究材料及環境設計 40三、研究設計 43四、計分與信度 45第二節 研究結果 46一、前導分析 46二、不同情境嬰兒的助人行為表現 46第三節 討論 48第五章 綜合討論和建議 52參考文獻 57 zh_TW dc.language.iso en_US - dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0098752022 en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) 助人行為 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 歸屬感 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 嬰兒 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 內隱圖片 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) helping behavior en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) affiliation en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) infants en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) implicit photos en_US dc.title (題名) 促發歸屬感與一歲半嬰兒的助人行為 zh_TW dc.title (題名) Helping following priming with affiliation in 18-month-old infants. en_US dc.type (資料類型) thesis en dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Axelrod, R., & Hamilton, W. (1981). The evolution of cooperation. Science, 211, 1390-1396.Brewer, M. B. (2007). The importance of being we: Human nature and intergroup relations. American Psychologist, 62, 728-738.Baumeister, R. F., & Leary, M. R. (1995). The need to belong: Desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 497-529.Brownell, C. A., Svetlova, M., & Nichols, S. (2009). To share or not to share:When do toddlers respond to another’s needs? Infancy, 14, 117–130.Bullinger, A. F., Zimmermann, F., Kaminski, J., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Different social motives in the gestural communication of chimpanzees and human children. Developmental Science, 14, 58-68.Caporael, L. R. (2001). Evolutionary psychology: Toward a unifying theory and a hybrid science. Annual Review of Psychology, 1 , 276-298.Coleman, P. K., & Byrd, C. P. (2003). Interpersonal correlates of peer victimization among young adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 32, 301-314.Darwin, C. (1871). The descent of man and selection in relation to sex. London: John Murray.Dekovic, M., & Janssens, J. M. A. M. (1992). Parents’ child-rearing style and children’s sociometric status. Developmental Psychology, 28, 925–932.Dunfield, K., Kuhlmeier, V. A., O’Connell, L., & Kelley, E. (2011). Examining the diversity of prosocial behavior: Helping, sharing, and comforting in infancy. Infancy, 16, 227-247.Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., & Spinrad, T. L. (2006). Prosocial Development. In J. Wiley & Sons (Eds.). Handbook of Child Psychology: Social, emotional, and personality development (pp. 647-718). New York: Wiley Press.Eisenberg, N., Fabes, R. A., Karbon, M., Murphy, B. C., Wosinski, M., Polazzi, L., Juhnke,C. (1996). The relations of children’s dispositional prosocial behavior to emotionality, regulation, and social functioning. Child Development, 67, 974–992.Falck-Ytter, T., Gredeback, G., & von Hofsten, C. (2006). Infants predict other people’s action goals. Nature Neuroscience, 9, 878-879.Feinman, S. (1982). Social referencing in infancy. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 28, 445-470.Grusec, J. E., Davidov, M., & Lundell, L. (2002). Prosocial and helping behavior. In P. Smith and C. Hart (eds.). Blackwell handbook of childhood social development (pp.457-474). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.Gintis, H., Bowles, S., Boyd, R., & Fehr, E. (2003). Explaining altruistic behavior in humans. Evolution and Human Behavior, 24, 153-172.Hamilton, W. D. (1964). The genetical evolution of social behavior. Journal of Theoretical Biolovy, 7, 1-16.Hay, D. P. (1979). Cooperative interactions and sharing between very young children and their parents. Developmental Psychology, 15, 647-65.Hampson, R. B. (1984). Adolescent prosocial behavior: Peer group and situational factors associated with helping. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 46, 153–162.Hay, D. E., Caplan, M., Castle, J., & Stimson, C. A. (1991). Does sharing become increasingly more rational in the second year of life? Developmental Psychology, 27, 987-993.Kartner, J., Keller, H., & Chaudhary, N. (2010). Cognitive and social influences on early prosocial behavior in two sociocultural contexts. Developmental Psychology, 46(4), 905-914.Kim, G., Walden, T. A., & Knieps, L. (2010). Impact and characteristics of positive and fearful emotional messages during infant social referencing. Infant Behavior and Development, 33, 189-195.Lakin, J. L., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). Using nonconscious behavioral mimicry to create affiliation and rapport. Psychological Science, 14,334-339.Liszkowski, U., & Tomasello, M. (2011). Individual differences in social, cognitive, and morphological aspects of infant pointing. Cognitive Development, 26 (1), 16-29.Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2008). Twelve-month-olds communicate helpfully and appropriately for knowledgeable and ignorant partners. Cognition, 108, 732-739.Liszkowski, U., Carpenter, M., Striano, T., & Tomasello, M. (2006). 12-and 18-month-olds point to provide infornation for others. Journal of Cognition and Development, 7, 173-187.Lakin, J. L., Jefferis, V. E., Cheng, C. M., & Chartrand, T. L. (2003). The chameleon effect as social glue: Evidence for the evolutionary significance of nonconscious mimicry. Journal of Nonverbal Behavior, 27, 145-163.Levitt, M. J., Weber, R. A., Clark, M. C., & McDonnell,P. (1985). Reciprocity of exchange in toddler sharing behavior. Developmental Psychology, 21, 122-123.McGuire, K. D., & Weisz, J. R. (1982). Social cognition and behavior correlates of preadolescent chumship. Child Development, 53, 1478-1484.Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2009a). Eighteen-month-old infants show increased helping following priming with affiliation. Psychological Science, 20, 1189-1193.Over, H., & Carpenter, M. (2009b). Priming third-party ostracism increases affiliative imitation in children. Developmental Science, 12, 1-8.Pan, Z., & Kosicki, G. M. (1997). Priming and media impact on the evaluations of the president’s performance. Communication Research, 24(1), 3-30.Triver, R. L. (1971). The evolution of reciprocal altruism. The Quarterly Review of Biology, 46, 35-57.Tomasello, M. (2008). Origins of human communication. MIT Press.Tomasello, M., & Carpenter, M. (2007). Shared intentionality. Developmental Science, 10, 121-125. Rheingold, H. L. (1982). Little children’s participation in the work of adults, a nascent prosocial behavior. Child Development, 53, 114-125.Rovee-Collier, C., Hankins, E., & Bhatt, R. (1992). Textons, visual pop-out effects, and object recognition in infancy. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 121(4), 435-445.Raviv, A., Bar-Tal, D., Ayalon, H., & Raviv, A. (1980). Perceptions of giving and receiving help by group members. Representative Research in Social Psychology, 11, 139–150.Takahashi, K. (1986). Examining the strange-situation procedure with Japanese mothers and 12-month-old infants. Developmental Psychology, 22(2), 265-270.Sebanc, A. M. (2003). The friendship features of preschool children: Links with prosocial behavior and aggression. Social Development, 12, 249-268.Sagi, A., Van IJzendorn, M. H., & Koren-Karie, N. (1991). Primary appraisal of the strange situation: a cross-cultural analysis of preseparation episodes. Developmental Psychology, 27(4), 587-596.Van IJzendorn, M. H., & Kroonenberg, P. M. (1988). Cross-cultural patterns of attachment: A meta-analysis of the Strange Situation. Child Development, 59, 147-156.Vaish, A., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2009). Sympathy through affective perspective taking and its relation to prosocial behavior in toddlers. Developmental Psychology, 45, 534-543.Vitaro, F., Gagnon, C., & Tremblay, R. E. (1990). Predicting stable peer rejection from kindergarten to Grade one. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 19, 257-264.Woodward, A. L. (1998). Infants selectively encode the goal of an actor’s reach. Cognition, 69,1-34.Woodward, A. L., & Guajardo, J. J. (2002). Infants’ understanding of the point gesture as an object-directed action. Cognitive Development, 17, 1061-1084.Walden, T. A., & Kim, G. (2005). Infants’ social looking toward mothers and strangers. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 29, 356-360.Warden, D., & Mackinnon, S. (2003). Prosocial bullies, bullies, and victims: An investigation of their sociometric status, empathy, and social problem-solving strategies. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 21, 367-385.Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2006). Altruistic helping in human infants and young chimpanzees. Science, 311, 1301-1303.Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2007). Helping and cooperation at 14 months of age. Infancy, 11, 271–294.Warneken, F., & Tomasello, M. (2009a). The roots of human altruism. 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