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題名 增進台灣國家衛生研究院授權活動成效之研究 －以美國國家衛生研究院授權活動為例
Research to Increase Taiwan National Health Research Institutes Licensing Performance by Comparing The Licensing Practice of United States National Institutes of Health作者 丘耀華
Hew, Yaohua貢獻者 陳桂恒
Chan, Keith
丘耀華
Hew, Yaohua關鍵詞 授權績效
資訊公開法
FOIA
NIH
NHRI
國家衛生研究院
Licensing performance
Freedom of Information
NIH
NHRI
FOIA日期 2013 上傳時間 1-May-2014 15:21:19 (UTC+8) 摘要 1980年，在美國拜杜法案（Bayh-Dole Act）通過以後，政府補助研發成果從原屬於國家財產，下放歸屬權於研發單位。因此研發單位可自行管理並將研發成果授權至產業界，將研發成果商品化，此過程稱之為「技術移轉」。技術移轉是一個非常細膩且複雜的過程，有許多因素會左右技術移轉的成敗，其中包括：技術之品質、法律限制、政策因素、產業需求和資訊流通等因素。技術移轉將可以使研發成果商品化， 有助於提升政府稅收和權利金收入，並且推動科學發展和增加就業機會，為國家創造經濟收入。本研究旨探如何提升政府補助國立生醫研究單位－台灣國家衛生研究院（NHRI）之授權績效。本研究將採用美國國家衛生研究院（NIH）之授權績效和授權執行方式當參考指標。為了得到精準和可信的數據，本研究僅截取官方之年報和網站的資料。與此同時，本研究末將會提供如何提升授權績效之建議。此研究發現就2010年而言，NIH和NHRI之授權績效可謂旗鼓相當。儘管台灣立法規定「政府資訊公開法」，此研究發現台灣國家衛生研究院有選擇性的發表其授權績效的跡象。由於政府所有開銷均從其預算而來，而政府預算部分自人民納稅所得，因此監督政府績效是普羅大眾的基本權利。人民有權監督，並且要求政府就其管理、執行成效做出解釋。然而，台灣國家衛生研究院之資訊不透明舉動，限制了人民監督的權利，此舉將會因缺乏監督而惡性循環的造成授權績效更為疲弱。此外，此研究亦發現較少的授權契約種類、授權策略在地化、研發成果披露之不明確性、智慧財產委員會專利申請和授權策略失衡是造成NHRI授權成果疲弱的因素。
Since the passage of U.S. Bayh-Dole Act in 1980, government-funded research inventions were no longer considered as government property. Invention could be patented and be licensed to industry through the process of commercialization for revenue return. Commercialization will create revenue in the form of royalty and taxes to the government, further driving scientific improvement and increase job opportunities.Technology commercialization is a very delicate process and there are a lot of factors that might alter the success, including but not limited to i) the quality of invention, ii) legislation restriction, iii) policy incentives, iv) industry interest, v) availability of information and etc. If managed properly, technology commercialization could bring high value to the academic institutes that developed an invention, to government that financially support academic research and to general public that could benefit from the invention itself.This study intends to identify the factors of the weak licensing performance in Taiwan government-funded national biomedical research organization, National Health Research Institute (NHRI). To evaluate the licensing performance of NHRI, this study will compare the licensing performance of NHRI with National Institute of Health (NIH) in the United States. To get accurate and formal data, this study will mainly retrieve data from official annual report and website. By comparing the practice of technology commercialization process of both institutes, this study could suggest possible flaws in NHRI’s licensing process in comparison to NIH. At the same time, this study will give suggestions to achieve a better licensing performance.This study concluded that both institute performed equally in FY 2010, but it has been noticed that NHRI were selectively in disclosing its licensing performance statistics and it is difficult to retrieve general information from NHRI, despite the availability of Freedom of Government Information Law (Taiwan). It’s the basic right for the general public to be able to supervise and surveillance a government agency’s performance as it utilizes the taxes contributed by a citizen in a country. The limitation of information disclosure by NHRI has made it difficult for general public supervise its licensing performance, of which might further contribute to even weaker licensing performance due to lack of supervision. This research also concluded that few options of licensing contracts, localization in licensing strategy, confusion in technology disclosure, possible misalignment of patenting & licensing strategy of the IP Management Committee contributes to weak licensing performance in the NHRI.參考文獻 Books:Alasdair Roberts (2006), Blacked Out: Government Secrecy in the Information Age, Cambridge.Sherman, B.; Bently, L. (1999). The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760–1911. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780521563635Athan G. Theoharis (1998). A Culture of Secrecy: The Government Versus the People’s Right to Know. Kansas: University Press of Kansas.Loise, V., Stevens A.J., (December 2010), The Bayh-Dole Act Turns 30, Les Nouvelles December 2010: 185-94.Papers/Publications:A Healthy Intramural Program (1988), Institute of Medicine.Congressional Budget Office (October 2006), p.3, Research and Development in the Pharmaceutical Industry.Dorsey, E.R., Roulet, J., Thompson J.P., et al., Funding of US Biomedical Research, 2003-2008 (January 13, 2010), Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 303, no. 2, pp. 137-143.Lemley, M.A., Rational Ignorance at the Patent Office (February 2001). Northwestern University Law Review, Vol. 95, No. 4, 2001.Office of Technology Assessment (February 1993), p.201, Pharmaceutical R&D: Costs, Risks and Rewards.Henderson, R., Jaffe, A., Trajtenberg, M., (March, 1999), Universities as a source of commercial technology: A detailed analysis of university patenting, 1965-1988, NBER Working Paper, No. 5068.United State General Account Office (1986), Patent Policy: Universities’ Research Efforts Under Public Law.Internet Publications: 2013 Biopharmaceutical Research Industry Profile, p40, (July, 2013), Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America (PhRMA), Retrieved from http://phrma.org/sites/default/files/pdf/PhRMA%20Profile%202013.pdfA Short History of the National Institute of Health (n.d.), National Institute of Health, Retrieved from http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/history/index.html About the FOIA (n.d.), The United States Department of Justice, Retrieved from http://www.justice.gov/oip/about-foia.htmlAnnual Report FY 2008 (2008), NIH Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/sites/default/files/documents/pdfs/AR2008.pdf Annual Report FY 2009 (2009), NIH Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/sites/default/files/documents/pdfs/AR2009.pdf Annual Report FY 2010 (2010), NIH Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/sites/default/files/documents/pdfs/AR2010.pdf Annual Report FY 2011 (2011), NIH Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/sites/default/files/documents/pdfs/AR2011.pdf Annual Report FY 2012 (2012), NIH Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/sites/default/files/documents/pdfs/AR2012.pdf Association of University Technology Manager (2012). AUTM U.S. Licensing Activity Survey FY2012 Highlights. Retrieved from http://www.autm.net/AM/Template.cfm?Section=FY2012_Licensing_Activity_Survey&Template=/CM/ContentDisplay.cfm&ContentID=11435Biomedical Research and Development Price Index (BRDPI): Fiscal Year 2012 Update and Projections for FY 2013-FY 2018 (January 2013), Department of Health and Human Services, Retrieved fromBudget Process Calendar (n.d.), National Institute of Health, Retrieved from http://officeofbudget.od.nih.gov/pdfs/FY14/Budget%20Process%20(Timeline%20Chart)-NEW1a.pdfCountries Not Members of the Patent Cooperation Treaty (PCT) (October 9, 2012), Neustel Law Offices, Retrieved from http://www.patent-ideas.com/international-patents/countries-not-members-of-pct.aspxElectronic Code of Federal Regulations (November, 2013), U.S. Government Printing Office, Retrieved from http://www.ecfr.gov/cgi-bin/text-idx?c=ecfr&SID=b1b3f0363cc8f316c1f41b2628e8e005&rgn=div8&view=text&node=37:1.0.4.13.1.0.218.14&idno=37Forms and Model Agreements (n.d.), NIH Office of Intramural Research & Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/forms-model-agreements#INTER Freedom of Information Act – Memorandum for The Heads of Executive Departments and Agencies (n.d.), the WHITEHOUSE, Retrieved from http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/FreedomofInformationAct/Government Transparency (n.d.), The United States Department of Justice, Retrieved from http://www.justice.gov/oip/government-transparency.htmlGross Domestic Product (GDP) Price Index (n.d.), NIH Office of Budget, Retrieved from http://officeofbudget.od.nih.gov/gbiPriceIndexes.htmlHHS Lights Up The World (n.d.), National Institutes of Health Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/service/hhs-lights-worldhttp://officeofbudget.od.nih.gov/pdfs/FY13/BRDPI/BRDPI_Proj_Jan_2013_Final.pdfIndicators of Science and Technology (FY 2012) (n.d.), Taiwan National Science Council, Retrieved from https://nscnt12.nsc.gov.tw/WAS2/technology/AsTechnologyDataIndex.aspxiPhone/iPad App (n.d.), National Institutes of Health Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/service/iphoneipad-appJustice Brandies, L.D., (n.d.), Brandies University, Retrieved from http://www.brandeis.edu/legacyfund/bio.htmlKelly Burke (12 Feb, 2013), Report Finds Average US Patent Cost US$ 374,000 In 2012, Intellectual Property Watch, Retrieved from http://www.ip-watch.org/2013/02/12/first-patent-value-quotient-report-shows-average-price-paid-for-issued-us-patents/?utm_source=post&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=alertsLicensing (n.d.), NIH Office for Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/licensingLicensing and Patenting Managers, NIH Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/staff-directory/lpmsLicensing FAQs (n.d.), NIH Office for Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/licensing-faqsLicensing Process (n.d.), NIH Office for Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/licensing-processMain Science and Technology Indicators (MSTI) 2012/1 (n.d.), Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/sti/msti.htmMeasuring the Economic Impact of IP Systems (2007), World Intellectual Property Organization, Retrieved from http://www.wipo.int/portal/en/news/2007/article_0032.htmlMission (n.d.), National Institutes of Health, Retrieved from http://www.nih.gov/about/mission.htmMission (n.d.), NIH Technology Transfer and Incubation Center, Retrieved from http://english.nhri.org.tw/NHRI_WEB/nhriw001Action.do?status=Show_Data&uid=20110617851073820000NIH FY 2013 Budget (2013), Department of Health and Human Services National Institutes of Health, Retrieved from http://officeofbudget.od.nih.gov/pdfs/FY13/FY2013_Overview.pdf NIH Intramural Research at the Threshold of a New Era (September 2009), NIH Office of Intramural Research. Retrieved from http://sourcebook.od.nih.gov/oir/IRP_transition.pdfNIH Start-Up Exclusive License Agreements (n.d.), NIH Office of Intramural Research and Office of Technology Transfer, http://www.ott.nih.gov/nih-start-exclusive-license-agreementsNon-Profit License Agreement – Summary (n.d.), National Institutes of Health Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/node/non-profit-license-agreement-summaryOppedahl, C., (June 1999), Filing A PCT Application May Lead To A Faster, Cheaper US Patent, Oppedahl & Olson LLP, Retrieved from http://www.oppedahl.com/pubs/pctfaster.htmOTT Statistics (n.d.), NIH Office of Intramural Research and Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/ott-statisticsOverview (n.d.), National Health Research Institute, Retrieved from http://english.nhri.org.tw/NHRI_WEB/nhriw001Action.do?status=Show_Data&uid=20110617146947300000Patents: Frequently Asked Questions (n.d.), World Intellectual Property Organization, Retrieved from http://www.wipo.int/patentscope/en/patents_faq.html#protectionPCT – The International Patent System (n.d.), WIPO, Retrieved from http://www.wipo.int/pct/en/Peptide Inhibitor of p38 Mapk Signaling for the Treatment of Inflammatory Autoimmune Diseases and Inflammatory Cancers(October 2013), NIH Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/technology/e-281-20120Price Index for Gross Domestic Product (January, 2013), NIH Office of Budget, Retrieved from http://officeofbudget.od.nih.gov/pdfs/FY14/GDPINDEX_Values_for_2012_2023.pdfProtecting Innovations by Utility Models (n.d.), WIPO, Retrieved from http://www.wipo.int/sme/en/ip_business/utility_models/utility_models.htmRoyalty (n.d.), National Institutes of Health Office of Technology Transfer, Retrieved from http://www.ott.nih.gov/royaltySmith, P.W., The National Institutes of Health (NIH): Organization, Funding, and Congressional Issues (March 16, 2011), Congressional Research Service, Retrieved from www.crs.gov The Federal Advisory Committee Act (n.d.), U.S. General Services Administration, Retrieved from http://www.gsa.gov/portal/content/100916 The Freedom of Information Act (1996), USDOJ, Retrieved from http://www.justice.gov/oip/foia_updates/Vol_XVII_4/page2.htmThe Knowledge Based Economy (1996), Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, Retrieved from http://www.oecd.org/sti/sci-tech/1913021.pdf What is the IRP? (n.d.), National Institute of Health Intramural Research Program, Retrieved from http://irp.nih.gov/about-us/what-is-the-irp What is the NIH Intramural Research Program? (n.d.), National Institute of Health, Retrieved from http://aids2012.oar.nih.gov/faqsnih.html#accomplishmentsWhat is the PCT? (Jun 8, 2011), Hawk IP Dashboard, Retrieved from http://www.hawkip.com/advice/what-is-the-pctWIPO Intellectual Property Handbook (n.d.), p.3, World Intellectual Property Organization, Retrieved from http://www.wipo.int/export/sites/www/about-ip/en/iprm/pdf/ch1.pdf WWI and the Ransdell Act of 1930 (n.d.), National Institutes of Health, Retrieved from http://history.nih.gov/exhibits/history/docs/page_04.htmlPersonal Communication:Richard Rodriguez (Director, Division of Technology Development & Transfer), rodrigr@mail.nih.gov, personal communication, Jan 2, 2014.Richard Rodriguez (Director, Division of Technology Development & Transfer), rodrigr@mail.nih.gov, personal communication, Jan 3, 2014.Officer S, sxxx9@nhri.org.tw, personal communication, December 11, 2013Cases:Eli Lilly & Co. v. Barr Laboratories Inc., 251 F.3d 955, 963, 58 USPQ2d 1865, 1874 (Fed. Cir. 2001) 描述 碩士
國立政治大學
科技管理與智慧財產研究所
100361019
102資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0100361019 資料類型 thesis dc.contributor.advisor 陳桂恒 zh_TW dc.contributor.advisor Chan, Keith en_US dc.contributor.author (Authors) 丘耀華 zh_TW dc.contributor.author (Authors) Hew, Yaohua en_US dc.creator (作者) 丘耀華 zh_TW dc.creator (作者) Hew, Yaohua en_US dc.date (日期) 2013 en_US dc.date.accessioned 1-May-2014 15:21:19 (UTC+8) - dc.date.available 1-May-2014 15:21:19 (UTC+8) - dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 1-May-2014 15:21:19 (UTC+8) - dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0100361019 en_US dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/65774 - dc.description (描述) 碩士 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 科技管理與智慧財產研究所 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 100361019 zh_TW dc.description (描述) 102 zh_TW dc.description.abstract (摘要) 1980年，在美國拜杜法案（Bayh-Dole Act）通過以後，政府補助研發成果從原屬於國家財產，下放歸屬權於研發單位。因此研發單位可自行管理並將研發成果授權至產業界，將研發成果商品化，此過程稱之為「技術移轉」。技術移轉是一個非常細膩且複雜的過程，有許多因素會左右技術移轉的成敗，其中包括：技術之品質、法律限制、政策因素、產業需求和資訊流通等因素。技術移轉將可以使研發成果商品化， 有助於提升政府稅收和權利金收入，並且推動科學發展和增加就業機會，為國家創造經濟收入。本研究旨探如何提升政府補助國立生醫研究單位－台灣國家衛生研究院（NHRI）之授權績效。本研究將採用美國國家衛生研究院（NIH）之授權績效和授權執行方式當參考指標。為了得到精準和可信的數據，本研究僅截取官方之年報和網站的資料。與此同時，本研究末將會提供如何提升授權績效之建議。此研究發現就2010年而言，NIH和NHRI之授權績效可謂旗鼓相當。儘管台灣立法規定「政府資訊公開法」，此研究發現台灣國家衛生研究院有選擇性的發表其授權績效的跡象。由於政府所有開銷均從其預算而來，而政府預算部分自人民納稅所得，因此監督政府績效是普羅大眾的基本權利。人民有權監督，並且要求政府就其管理、執行成效做出解釋。然而，台灣國家衛生研究院之資訊不透明舉動，限制了人民監督的權利，此舉將會因缺乏監督而惡性循環的造成授權績效更為疲弱。此外，此研究亦發現較少的授權契約種類、授權策略在地化、研發成果披露之不明確性、智慧財產委員會專利申請和授權策略失衡是造成NHRI授權成果疲弱的因素。 zh_TW dc.description.abstract (摘要) Since the passage of U.S. Bayh-Dole Act in 1980, government-funded research inventions were no longer considered as government property. Invention could be patented and be licensed to industry through the process of commercialization for revenue return. Commercialization will create revenue in the form of royalty and taxes to the government, further driving scientific improvement and increase job opportunities.Technology commercialization is a very delicate process and there are a lot of factors that might alter the success, including but not limited to i) the quality of invention, ii) legislation restriction, iii) policy incentives, iv) industry interest, v) availability of information and etc. If managed properly, technology commercialization could bring high value to the academic institutes that developed an invention, to government that financially support academic research and to general public that could benefit from the invention itself.This study intends to identify the factors of the weak licensing performance in Taiwan government-funded national biomedical research organization, National Health Research Institute (NHRI). To evaluate the licensing performance of NHRI, this study will compare the licensing performance of NHRI with National Institute of Health (NIH) in the United States. To get accurate and formal data, this study will mainly retrieve data from official annual report and website. By comparing the practice of technology commercialization process of both institutes, this study could suggest possible flaws in NHRI’s licensing process in comparison to NIH. At the same time, this study will give suggestions to achieve a better licensing performance.This study concluded that both institute performed equally in FY 2010, but it has been noticed that NHRI were selectively in disclosing its licensing performance statistics and it is difficult to retrieve general information from NHRI, despite the availability of Freedom of Government Information Law (Taiwan). It’s the basic right for the general public to be able to supervise and surveillance a government agency’s performance as it utilizes the taxes contributed by a citizen in a country. The limitation of information disclosure by NHRI has made it difficult for general public supervise its licensing performance, of which might further contribute to even weaker licensing performance due to lack of supervision. This research also concluded that few options of licensing contracts, localization in licensing strategy, confusion in technology disclosure, possible misalignment of patenting & licensing strategy of the IP Management Committee contributes to weak licensing performance in the NHRI. en_US dc.description.tableofcontents Acknowledgement iEnglish Abstract i中文摘要 iiiFigure Index viTable Index viiChapter 1: Introduction 11.1 Background 11.2 Statement of Problem 31.3 Research Objective 51.4 Research Methods 61.5 Research Structure 71.6 Research Restriction 81.7 Abbreviated Terminologies 9Chapter 2: Introduction to Intellectual Property Rights 102.1 Types of Intellectual Property Rights 102.1.1 Patents 112.2 Objective of Providing Patent Protection 132.2.2 PCT- Patent Cooperation Treaty 15Chapter 3: Introduction to Technology Licensing 183.1 Background 183.2 Due Diligence 193.3 Technology Transfer: Licensing 223.4 The Process of Technology Licensing 233.5 US Legislation: Bayh-Dole Act 263.6 Taiwan Legislation: Fundamental Science and Technology Act 293.7 Locally Manufacture Clause 30Chapter 4: Freedom to Information Law 364.1 Background 364.2 United States Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) 374.3 Taiwan Freedom of Government Information Law, 404.4 The Importance of Information Transparency to Technology Transfer 424.4.1 Information Transparency: From the Point of View of TTO 424.4.2 Information Transparency: From the Point of View of Technology Acquirer 43Chapter 5: Government Funded Biotechnology Research 455.1 Background 455.2 United States Government Funded Public Research Institute: National Institutes of Health (NIH) 455.2.1 Executive Orders and Source of Funding 475.2.2 Organization and Structure 515.2.3 Intramural Research Program (IRP) 515.2.4 Overview of Licensing Process at NIH 535.2.4.1 Technology Protection (Patent Application) 545.2.4.2 Types of Licenses Available at NIH 555.2.4.3 Licensing Process 565.2.4.4 Post Licensing Performance Evaluation 585.2.5 Reputation and Licensing Performance 595.2.5.1 Reputation 595.2.5.2 Licensing Reputation 605.2.6 NIH OTT Effort to Increase Licensing Activity to Serve Global Public Health 645.3 Taiwan Government Funded Public Research Institute: National Health Research Institute (NHRI) 675.3.1 Background 675.3.2 Executive Orders and Source of Funding 685.3.3 Organization and Structure 695.3.4 Overview of Licensing Process at NHRI 725.3.4.1 Reputation and Licensing Performance 74Chapter 6: Comparison of Licensing Performance 78Chapter 7: Conclusion 84Chapter 8: Discussions 868.1 Background 868.2 The Announcement of Licensing Opportunities and Licensee Selection 868.3 Scope and Types of Licenses 928.4 Notice for Available Technology and Time to License 928.5 Effort to Market of New Invention 938.6 Patenting & Licensing Manager (NIH) vs. IP Management Committee (NHRI) 958.6.1 Decision Making of IP Management Committee 968.6.2 Evaluation Standard for Exclusive or Non-Exclusive Licensing 978.7 Accessibility of Information 988.7.1 Communication Language 988.7.2 Freedom to Access Information 998.8 Future Suggestions 105Reference 107參考資料 112Appendix 115 zh_TW dc.format.extent 6454898 bytes - dc.format.mimetype application/pdf - dc.language.iso en_US - dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0100361019 en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) 授權績效 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 資訊公開法 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) FOIA zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) NIH zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) NHRI zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) 國家衛生研究院 zh_TW dc.subject (關鍵詞) Licensing performance en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) Freedom of Information en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) NIH en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) NHRI en_US dc.subject (關鍵詞) FOIA en_US dc.title (題名) 增進台灣國家衛生研究院授權活動成效之研究 －以美國國家衛生研究院授權活動為例 zh_TW dc.title (題名) Research to Increase Taiwan National Health Research Institutes Licensing Performance by Comparing The Licensing Practice of United States National Institutes of Health en_US dc.type (資料類型) thesis en dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Books:Alasdair Roberts (2006), Blacked Out: Government Secrecy in the Information Age, Cambridge.Sherman, B.; Bently, L. (1999). The making of modern intellectual property law: the British experience, 1760–1911. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 9780521563635Athan G. Theoharis (1998). A Culture of Secrecy: The Government Versus the People’s Right to Know. Kansas: University Press of Kansas.Loise, V., Stevens A.J., (December 2010), The Bayh-Dole Act Turns 30, Les Nouvelles December 2010: 185-94.Papers/Publications:A Healthy Intramural Program (1988), Institute of Medicine.Congressional Budget Office (October 2006), p.3, Research and Development in the Pharmaceutical Industry.Dorsey, E.R., Roulet, J., Thompson J.P., et al., Funding of US Biomedical Research, 2003-2008 (January 13, 2010), Journal of the American Medical Association, vol. 303, no. 2, pp. 137-143.Lemley, M.A., Rational Ignorance at the Patent Office (February 2001). 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