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題名 臺灣全民健康保險對商業保險市場與醫療利用之影響
The Impacts of National Health Insurance on the Private Health Insurance Market and Medical Care Utilization: Evidence from Taiwan
作者 劉文彬
Liu, Wen Pin
貢獻者 王儷玲
劉文彬
Liu, Wen Pin
關鍵詞 全民健康保險
商業保險
醫療利用
National Health Insurance
Private Health Insurance
Medical Care Utilization
日期 2013
上傳時間 4-Jun-2014 14:42:10 (UTC+8)
摘要 In this doctoral dissertation, I focus on the long-term effect of national health insurance (NHI) on the private health insurance market and analyze the effects of NHI on the utilization of medical care in Taiwan. In the private health insurance market, my results based on a 12-year unique data set and Difference-in-Difference (DID) models with Propensity Score Matching methods (PSM) reveal that public health insurance does not crowd out private health insurance. The evidence supports the significant increases in the private health insurance coverage ratio in the long run as insurers simultaneously adjusted their product strategies. We also find that the implementation of NHI has a crowding-in effect on households for different income levels. In the utilization of medical care in Taiwan, I adopt a two-part model that combines PSM with the DID method to estimate the causal effect of Taiwan’s NHI on outpatient and inpatient care in terms of both probability and frequency. The main finding is that the impacts on outpatients are considerably larger than on inpatients following the implementation of NHI. In addition, the results also suggest that young females increase the frequency of their hospital stays more than those of males. For different age groups, I find that the elders increase the utilization of medical services significantly after the implementation of NHI. I also find that the degree of the increase in the Incidence of cancers has been smaller following the implementation of NHI, especially for Cervical Carcinoma. The mortality rate cause by the cancers has also stopped increasing.
參考文獻 1. Abbring JH, Chiappori P-A, Pinquet J. 2003. Moral hazard and dynamic insurance data. Journal of the European Economic Association,1, 767-820.
2. Almeida RA, Dubay LC, Ko G. 2001. Access to care and use of health services by low-income women. Health Care Financing Review, 22, 27-47.
3. Arrow, Kenneth J. 1963. Uncertainty and the welfare economics of Medical Care. American Economic Review, 53 (5), 941-973.
4. Banthin JS, Selden TM. 2003. The ABCs of Children`s Health Care: How the Medicaid Expansions Affected Access, Burdens, and Coverage between 1987 and 1996. Inquiry, 40, 133-145.
5. Barros PP, Machado MP, Sanz-de-Galdeano A. 2008. Moral hazard and the demand for health services: A matching estimator approach. Journal of Health Economics, 27, 1006-1025.
6. Blumberg, Linda J., Lisa Dubay, and Stephen A. Norton. 2000. Did the Medicaid expansions for children displace private insurance? An analysis using the SIPP. Journal of Health Economics 19, 33-60.
7. Boyer M, Dionne G. 1989. An Empirical Analysis of Moral Hazard and Experience Rating. Review of Economics and Statistics, 71, 128-134.
8. Brown, Jeffrey R., and Amy Finkelstein. 2008. The interaction of public and private insurance: Medicaid and the long-term care insurance market. American Economic Review 98 (3), 1083-1102.
9. Card, David, and Lara D. Shore-Sheppard. 2004. Using discontinuous eligibility rules to identify the effects of the federal Medicaid expansions on low-income children. Review of Economics and Statistics 86 (3), 752-766.
10. Card D, Dobkin C, Maestas N. 2008. The Impact of Nearly Universal Insurance Coverage on Health Care Utilization: Evidence from Medicare. American Economic Review, 98, 2242-2258.
11. Chang, Simon,. 2012. The Effect of Taiwan’s National Health Insurance on Mortality of the Elderly: Revisited. Health Economics, 21(11), 1257–1270.
12. Chen L, Yip W, Chang M-C, Lin H-S, Lee S-D, Chiu Y-L, Lin Y-H. 2007. The effects of Taiwan`s National Health Insurance on access and health status of the elderly. Health Economics, 16, 223-242.
13. Cheng SH, Chiang TL. 1997. The effect of universal health insurance on health care utilization in Taiwan. Results from a natural experiment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 89-93.
14. Chiappori P-A, Durand F, Geoffard P-Y. 1998. Moral hazard and the demand for physician services: First lessons from a French natural experiment. European Economic Review, 42, 499-511.
15. Chiappori PA, Salanie B. 2000. Testing for Asymmetric Information in Insurance Markets,” Journal of Political Economy, 108, 56-78.
16. Chou, Shin-Yi, Jin-Tan Liu, and James K. Hammitt. 2003. National Health Insurance and precautionary saving: Evidence from Taiwan. Journal of Public Economics 87 (9–10), 1873-1894.
17. Chou, S.-Y., M. Grossman, and J.-T. Liu,. 2011. The Impact of National Health Insurance on Birth Outcomes: A Natural Experiment in Taiwan. NBER Working Paper, No. 16811.
18. Costa-Font, Joan, and Mireia Jofre-Bonet. 2006. Are private health insurance subscribers unsatisfied with the Spanish national health system? Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance - Issues and Practice 31 (4):650-668.
19. Currie J, Gruber J. 1996a. Health Insurance Eligibility, Utilization of Medical Care, and Child Health. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111, 431-466.
20. Currie, Janet, and Jonathan Gruber. 1996b. Saving babies: The efficacy and cost of recent changes in the Medicaid eligibility of pregnant. Journal of Political Economy, 104 (6),1263.
21. Cutler, David M., and Jonathan Gruber. 1996. Does public insurance crowd out private insurance? The Quarterly Journal of Economics 111 (2), 391-430.
22. Deb P. 2001. A discrete random effects probit model with application to the demand for preventive care. Health Economics, 10, 371-383.
23. Dionne G, Gagné R. 2002. Replacement Cost Endorsement and Opportunistic Fraud in Automobile Insurance. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 24, 213-230.
24. Dubay, Lisa, and Genevieve Kenney. 1997. Did Medicaid expansions for pregnant women crowd out private coverage? Health Affairs 16(1),185-93
25. Finkelstein, Amy. 2004. The interaction of partial public insurance programs and residual private insurance markets: Evidence from the US Medicare program. Journal of Health Economics 23, 1-24.
26. Finkelstein, Amy. 2007. The Aggregate Effects Of Health Insurance: Evidence From The Introduction Of Medicare. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122 (1), 1-37
27. Finkelstein, Amy, Sarah Taubman, Bill Wright, Mira Bernstein, Jonathan Gruber, Joseph P. Newhouse, Heidi Allen, and Katherine Baecker. 2012. The Oregon Health Insurance Experiment: Evidence From The First Year. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127 (3),1057-1106.
28. Gruber, Jonathan, and Kosali Simon. 2008. Crowd-out 10 years later: Have recent public insurance expansions crowded out private health insurance? Journal of Health Economics 27, 201-217.
29. Gruber, Jonathan. 2011. Massachusetts points the way to successful health care reform. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 30 (1), 184-192.
30. Guo JQ, Trivedi PK. 2002. Flexible Parametric Models for Long-tailed Patent Count Distributions. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 64, 63-82.
31. Hahn B. 1994. Health Care Utilization: The Effect of Extending Insurance to Adults on Medicaid or Uninsured,” Medical Care, 32; 227-239.
32. Ham, John C., and Lara Shore-Sheppard. 2005. The effect of Medicaid expans- ions for low-income children on Medicaid participation and private insurance coverage: Evidence from the SIPP. Journal of Public Economics 89 (1), 57-83.
33. Holl JL, Szilagyi PG, Rodewald LE, Shone LP, Zwanziger J, Mukamel DB, Trafton S, Dick AW, Barth R, Raubertas RF. 2000. Evaluation of New York State`s Child Health Plus: Access, Utilization, Quality of Health Care, and Health Status. Pediatrics, 105, 711-718.
34. Hullegie P, Klein TJ. 2010. The effect of private health insurance on medical care utilization and self-assessed health in Germany. Health Economics, 19, 1048-1062.
35. Kaestner R, Joyce T, Racine A. 2001. Medicaid eligibility and the incidence of ambulatory care sensitive hospitalizations for children. Social Science & Medicine, 52, 305-313.
36. Kolstad, Jonathan T., and Amanda E. Kowalski. 2012. The impact of health care reform on hospital and preventive care: Evidence from Massachu- setts. Journal of Public Economics, 96, 909-929.
37. Kronick, Richard, and Todd Gilmer. 2002. Insuring low-income adults: Does public coverage crowd out private? Health Affairs 21 (1), 225-239.
38. Lave JR, Keane CR, Lin CJ, Ricci EM, Amersbach G, LaVallee CP. 1998. Impact of a Children`s Health Insurance Program on Newly Enrolled Children. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 1820-1825.
39. Liu, Tsai-Ching, and Chin-Shyan Chen. 2002. An analysis of private health insurance purchasing decisions with national health insurance in Taiwan. Social Science and Medicine 55 (5), 755-774.
40. Lo Sasso, Anthony T., and Thomas C. Buchmueller. 2004. The effect of the state children’s health insurance program on health insurance coverage. Journal of Health Economics 23, 1059-1082.
41. Long, Sharon K., Karen Stockley, and Alshadye Yemane. 2009. Another look at the impacts of health reform in Massachusetts: Evidence using new data and a stronger model. American Economic Review 99 (2), 508-511.
42. Long SH, Marquis MS, Rodgers J.1998. Do people shift their use of health services over time to take advantage of insurance? Journal of Health Economics, 17, 105-115.
43. Manning WG, Newhouse JP, Duan N, Keeler EB, Leibowitz A. 1987. Health Insurance and the Demand for Medical Care: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment. American Economic Review, 77, 251-277.
44. Miller, Sarah. 2006. The effect of insurance on emergency room visits: An analysis of the 2006 Massachusetts health reform. Journal of Public Economics, 96 (11–12), 893-908.
45. Newhouse JP. 1974. A design for a health isurance experiment. Inquiry, 11; 5-27.
46. Pauly, Mark V. 1968. The Economics of Moral Hazard: Comment. American Economic Review, 58 (3), 531-537.
47. Perreira, Krista M. 2006. Crowd-in: The effect of private health insurance markets on the demand for Medicaid. Health Services Research 41 (5), 1762-81.
48. Pohlmeier W, Ulrich V. 1995. An Econometric Model of the Two-Part Decisionmaking Process in the Demand for Health Care. Journal of Human Resources, 30, 339-361.
49. Rask, Kevin N., and Kimberly J. Rask. 2000. Public insurance substituting for private insurance: New evidence regarding public hospitals, uncompen- sated care funds, and Medicaid. Journal Health Economics 19, 1-31.
50. Richaudeau D. 1999. Automobile Insurance Contracts and Risk of Accident: An Empirical Test Using French Individual Data. The GENEVA Papers on Risk and Insurance Theory, 24, 97-114.
51. Riphahn RT, Wambach A, Million A. 2003. Incentive effects in the demand for health care: a bivariate panel count data estimation. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 18, 387-405.
52. Rosenbaum, Paul R., and Donald B. Rubin. 1983. The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika 70 (1), 41-55.
53. Rosenbaum, Paul R., and Donald B. Rubin. 1985a. The bias due to incomplete matching. Biometrics 41 (1), 103-116.
54. Rosenbaum, Paul R., and Donald B. Rubin. 1985b. Constructing a control group using multivariate matched sampling methods that incorporate the propensity score. The American Statistician 39 (1), 33-38.
55. Shen C-H, Chang Y. 2009. Ambition Versus Conscience, Does Corporate Social Responsibility Pay off? The Application of Matching Methods. Journal of Business Ethics, 88, 133-153.
56. Short PF, Lefkowitz DC.1992. Encouraging Preventive Services for Low- Income Children: The Effect of Expanding Medicaid,” Medical Care, 30, 766-780.
57. Spillman BC. 1992. The impact of being uninsured on utilization of basic health care services,” Inquiry, 29; 457-466.
58. Stoddard JJ, St. Peter RF, Newacheck PW. 1994. Health Insurance Status and Ambulatory Care for Children. New England Journal of Medicine, 330, 1421-1425.
59. Thorpe, Kenneth E., and Curtis S. Florence. 1998. Health insurance among children: The role of expanded Medicaid coverage. Inquiry 35 (4),369-79
60. van der Gaag, J., and V. Stimac. 2012. How can we increase resources for health care in the developing world? Is (subsidized) voluntary health insurance the answer? Health Economics 21, 55-61.
61. Wagstaff A, Yu S. 2007. Do health sector reforms have their intended impacts? The World Bank`s Health VIII project in Gansu province, China. Journal of Health Economics, 26, 505-535.
描述 博士
國立政治大學
風險管理與保險研究所
95358502
102
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0095358502
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 王儷玲zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 劉文彬zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Liu, Wen Pinen_US
dc.creator (作者) 劉文彬zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Liu, Wen Pinen_US
dc.date (日期) 2013en_US
dc.date.accessioned 4-Jun-2014 14:42:10 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 4-Jun-2014 14:42:10 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 4-Jun-2014 14:42:10 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0095358502en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/66470-
dc.description (描述) 博士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 風險管理與保險研究所zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 95358502zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 102zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) In this doctoral dissertation, I focus on the long-term effect of national health insurance (NHI) on the private health insurance market and analyze the effects of NHI on the utilization of medical care in Taiwan. In the private health insurance market, my results based on a 12-year unique data set and Difference-in-Difference (DID) models with Propensity Score Matching methods (PSM) reveal that public health insurance does not crowd out private health insurance. The evidence supports the significant increases in the private health insurance coverage ratio in the long run as insurers simultaneously adjusted their product strategies. We also find that the implementation of NHI has a crowding-in effect on households for different income levels. In the utilization of medical care in Taiwan, I adopt a two-part model that combines PSM with the DID method to estimate the causal effect of Taiwan’s NHI on outpatient and inpatient care in terms of both probability and frequency. The main finding is that the impacts on outpatients are considerably larger than on inpatients following the implementation of NHI. In addition, the results also suggest that young females increase the frequency of their hospital stays more than those of males. For different age groups, I find that the elders increase the utilization of medical services significantly after the implementation of NHI. I also find that the degree of the increase in the Incidence of cancers has been smaller following the implementation of NHI, especially for Cervical Carcinoma. The mortality rate cause by the cancers has also stopped increasing.en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents Abstract 1
1.Introduction 2
2.The NHI in Taiwan 9
3.Data and Methodology
3.1 Data 11
3.2 Empirical Models 12
4.Empirical Results
4.1 The Short-term and Long-term Crowding-out Effect 19
4.2. The Impact of the Utilizations of Inpatient and Outpatient Services 28
5.Discussion
5.1 Discussion of Product Adjustment Strategy and the Crowding-out Effect 39
5.2 Discussion of the Health Examinations and Mortality 42
6.Conclusions 45
References 48
Appendix 55		zh_TW
dc.language.iso en_US-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0095358502en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 全民健康保險zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 商業保險zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 醫療利用zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) National Health Insuranceen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Private Health Insuranceen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Medical Care Utilizationen_US
dc.title (題名) 臺灣全民健康保險對商業保險市場與醫療利用之影響zh_TW
dc.title (題名) The Impacts of National Health Insurance on the Private Health Insurance Market and Medical Care Utilization: Evidence from Taiwanen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 1. Abbring JH, Chiappori P-A, Pinquet J. 2003. Moral hazard and dynamic insurance data. Journal of the European Economic Association,1, 767-820.
2. Almeida RA, Dubay LC, Ko G. 2001. Access to care and use of health services by low-income women. Health Care Financing Review, 22, 27-47.
3. Arrow, Kenneth J. 1963. Uncertainty and the welfare economics of Medical Care. American Economic Review, 53 (5), 941-973.
4. Banthin JS, Selden TM. 2003. The ABCs of Children`s Health Care: How the Medicaid Expansions Affected Access, Burdens, and Coverage between 1987 and 1996. Inquiry, 40, 133-145.
5. Barros PP, Machado MP, Sanz-de-Galdeano A. 2008. Moral hazard and the demand for health services: A matching estimator approach. Journal of Health Economics, 27, 1006-1025.
6. Blumberg, Linda J., Lisa Dubay, and Stephen A. Norton. 2000. Did the Medicaid expansions for children displace private insurance? An analysis using the SIPP. Journal of Health Economics 19, 33-60.
7. Boyer M, Dionne G. 1989. An Empirical Analysis of Moral Hazard and Experience Rating. Review of Economics and Statistics, 71, 128-134.
8. Brown, Jeffrey R., and Amy Finkelstein. 2008. The interaction of public and private insurance: Medicaid and the long-term care insurance market. American Economic Review 98 (3), 1083-1102.
9. Card, David, and Lara D. Shore-Sheppard. 2004. Using discontinuous eligibility rules to identify the effects of the federal Medicaid expansions on low-income children. Review of Economics and Statistics 86 (3), 752-766.
10. Card D, Dobkin C, Maestas N. 2008. The Impact of Nearly Universal Insurance Coverage on Health Care Utilization: Evidence from Medicare. American Economic Review, 98, 2242-2258.
11. Chang, Simon,. 2012. The Effect of Taiwan’s National Health Insurance on Mortality of the Elderly: Revisited. Health Economics, 21(11), 1257–1270.
12. Chen L, Yip W, Chang M-C, Lin H-S, Lee S-D, Chiu Y-L, Lin Y-H. 2007. The effects of Taiwan`s National Health Insurance on access and health status of the elderly. Health Economics, 16, 223-242.
13. Cheng SH, Chiang TL. 1997. The effect of universal health insurance on health care utilization in Taiwan. Results from a natural experiment. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 89-93.
14. Chiappori P-A, Durand F, Geoffard P-Y. 1998. Moral hazard and the demand for physician services: First lessons from a French natural experiment. European Economic Review, 42, 499-511.
15. Chiappori PA, Salanie B. 2000. Testing for Asymmetric Information in Insurance Markets,” Journal of Political Economy, 108, 56-78.
16. Chou, Shin-Yi, Jin-Tan Liu, and James K. Hammitt. 2003. National Health Insurance and precautionary saving: Evidence from Taiwan. Journal of Public Economics 87 (9–10), 1873-1894.
17. Chou, S.-Y., M. Grossman, and J.-T. Liu,. 2011. The Impact of National Health Insurance on Birth Outcomes: A Natural Experiment in Taiwan. NBER Working Paper, No. 16811.
18. Costa-Font, Joan, and Mireia Jofre-Bonet. 2006. Are private health insurance subscribers unsatisfied with the Spanish national health system? Geneva Papers on Risk and Insurance - Issues and Practice 31 (4):650-668.
19. Currie J, Gruber J. 1996a. Health Insurance Eligibility, Utilization of Medical Care, and Child Health. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111, 431-466.
20. Currie, Janet, and Jonathan Gruber. 1996b. Saving babies: The efficacy and cost of recent changes in the Medicaid eligibility of pregnant. Journal of Political Economy, 104 (6),1263.
21. Cutler, David M., and Jonathan Gruber. 1996. Does public insurance crowd out private insurance? The Quarterly Journal of Economics 111 (2), 391-430.
22. Deb P. 2001. A discrete random effects probit model with application to the demand for preventive care. Health Economics, 10, 371-383.
23. Dionne G, Gagné R. 2002. Replacement Cost Endorsement and Opportunistic Fraud in Automobile Insurance. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 24, 213-230.
24. Dubay, Lisa, and Genevieve Kenney. 1997. Did Medicaid expansions for pregnant women crowd out private coverage? Health Affairs 16(1),185-93
25. Finkelstein, Amy. 2004. The interaction of partial public insurance programs and residual private insurance markets: Evidence from the US Medicare program. Journal of Health Economics 23, 1-24.
26. Finkelstein, Amy. 2007. The Aggregate Effects Of Health Insurance: Evidence From The Introduction Of Medicare. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 122 (1), 1-37
27. Finkelstein, Amy, Sarah Taubman, Bill Wright, Mira Bernstein, Jonathan Gruber, Joseph P. Newhouse, Heidi Allen, and Katherine Baecker. 2012. The Oregon Health Insurance Experiment: Evidence From The First Year. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 127 (3),1057-1106.
28. Gruber, Jonathan, and Kosali Simon. 2008. Crowd-out 10 years later: Have recent public insurance expansions crowded out private health insurance? Journal of Health Economics 27, 201-217.
29. Gruber, Jonathan. 2011. Massachusetts points the way to successful health care reform. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management 30 (1), 184-192.
30. Guo JQ, Trivedi PK. 2002. Flexible Parametric Models for Long-tailed Patent Count Distributions. Oxford Bulletin of Economics and Statistics, 64, 63-82.
31. Hahn B. 1994. Health Care Utilization: The Effect of Extending Insurance to Adults on Medicaid or Uninsured,” Medical Care, 32; 227-239.
32. Ham, John C., and Lara Shore-Sheppard. 2005. The effect of Medicaid expans- ions for low-income children on Medicaid participation and private insurance coverage: Evidence from the SIPP. Journal of Public Economics 89 (1), 57-83.
33. Holl JL, Szilagyi PG, Rodewald LE, Shone LP, Zwanziger J, Mukamel DB, Trafton S, Dick AW, Barth R, Raubertas RF. 2000. Evaluation of New York State`s Child Health Plus: Access, Utilization, Quality of Health Care, and Health Status. Pediatrics, 105, 711-718.
34. Hullegie P, Klein TJ. 2010. The effect of private health insurance on medical care utilization and self-assessed health in Germany. Health Economics, 19, 1048-1062.
35. Kaestner R, Joyce T, Racine A. 2001. Medicaid eligibility and the incidence of ambulatory care sensitive hospitalizations for children. Social Science & Medicine, 52, 305-313.
36. Kolstad, Jonathan T., and Amanda E. Kowalski. 2012. The impact of health care reform on hospital and preventive care: Evidence from Massachu- setts. Journal of Public Economics, 96, 909-929.
37. Kronick, Richard, and Todd Gilmer. 2002. Insuring low-income adults: Does public coverage crowd out private? Health Affairs 21 (1), 225-239.
38. Lave JR, Keane CR, Lin CJ, Ricci EM, Amersbach G, LaVallee CP. 1998. Impact of a Children`s Health Insurance Program on Newly Enrolled Children. JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 279, 1820-1825.
39. Liu, Tsai-Ching, and Chin-Shyan Chen. 2002. An analysis of private health insurance purchasing decisions with national health insurance in Taiwan. Social Science and Medicine 55 (5), 755-774.
40. Lo Sasso, Anthony T., and Thomas C. Buchmueller. 2004. The effect of the state children’s health insurance program on health insurance coverage. Journal of Health Economics 23, 1059-1082.
41. Long, Sharon K., Karen Stockley, and Alshadye Yemane. 2009. Another look at the impacts of health reform in Massachusetts: Evidence using new data and a stronger model. American Economic Review 99 (2), 508-511.
42. Long SH, Marquis MS, Rodgers J.1998. Do people shift their use of health services over time to take advantage of insurance? Journal of Health Economics, 17, 105-115.
43. Manning WG, Newhouse JP, Duan N, Keeler EB, Leibowitz A. 1987. Health Insurance and the Demand for Medical Care: Evidence from a Randomized Experiment. American Economic Review, 77, 251-277.
44. Miller, Sarah. 2006. The effect of insurance on emergency room visits: An analysis of the 2006 Massachusetts health reform. Journal of Public Economics, 96 (11–12), 893-908.
45. Newhouse JP. 1974. A design for a health isurance experiment. Inquiry, 11; 5-27.
46. Pauly, Mark V. 1968. The Economics of Moral Hazard: Comment. American Economic Review, 58 (3), 531-537.
47. Perreira, Krista M. 2006. Crowd-in: The effect of private health insurance markets on the demand for Medicaid. Health Services Research 41 (5), 1762-81.
48. Pohlmeier W, Ulrich V. 1995. An Econometric Model of the Two-Part Decisionmaking Process in the Demand for Health Care. Journal of Human Resources, 30, 339-361.
49. Rask, Kevin N., and Kimberly J. Rask. 2000. Public insurance substituting for private insurance: New evidence regarding public hospitals, uncompen- sated care funds, and Medicaid. Journal Health Economics 19, 1-31.
50. Richaudeau D. 1999. Automobile Insurance Contracts and Risk of Accident: An Empirical Test Using French Individual Data. The GENEVA Papers on Risk and Insurance Theory, 24, 97-114.
51. Riphahn RT, Wambach A, Million A. 2003. Incentive effects in the demand for health care: a bivariate panel count data estimation. Journal of Applied Econometrics, 18, 387-405.
52. Rosenbaum, Paul R., and Donald B. Rubin. 1983. The central role of the propensity score in observational studies for causal effects. Biometrika 70 (1), 41-55.
53. Rosenbaum, Paul R., and Donald B. Rubin. 1985a. The bias due to incomplete matching. Biometrics 41 (1), 103-116.
54. Rosenbaum, Paul R., and Donald B. Rubin. 1985b. Constructing a control group using multivariate matched sampling methods that incorporate the propensity score. The American Statistician 39 (1), 33-38.
55. Shen C-H, Chang Y. 2009. Ambition Versus Conscience, Does Corporate Social Responsibility Pay off? The Application of Matching Methods. Journal of Business Ethics, 88, 133-153.
56. Short PF, Lefkowitz DC.1992. Encouraging Preventive Services for Low- Income Children: The Effect of Expanding Medicaid,” Medical Care, 30, 766-780.
57. Spillman BC. 1992. The impact of being uninsured on utilization of basic health care services,” Inquiry, 29; 457-466.
58. Stoddard JJ, St. Peter RF, Newacheck PW. 1994. Health Insurance Status and Ambulatory Care for Children. New England Journal of Medicine, 330, 1421-1425.
59. Thorpe, Kenneth E., and Curtis S. Florence. 1998. Health insurance among children: The role of expanded Medicaid coverage. Inquiry 35 (4),369-79
60. van der Gaag, J., and V. Stimac. 2012. How can we increase resources for health care in the developing world? Is (subsidized) voluntary health insurance the answer? Health Economics 21, 55-61.
61. Wagstaff A, Yu S. 2007. Do health sector reforms have their intended impacts? The World Bank`s Health VIII project in Gansu province, China. Journal of Health Economics, 26, 505-535.		zh_TW