1. NCCU Academic Hub
  2. Publications
  3. College of Communication
  4. Theses
  5. Item

Publications-Theses

Article View/Open

Publication Export

Google ScholarTM

NCCU Library

Citation Infomation

Related Publications in TAIR

題名 台灣人怎麼看非洲? 台灣大學生的刻板印象認可程度之探索式研究
Taiwan’s Eye on Africa: An Exploratory Study of Stereotype Endorsement Among Taiwanese University Students
作者 慕以萱
Moi, Barbara
貢獻者 郭貞
Kuo, Cheng
慕以萱
Moi, Barbara
關鍵詞 刻板印象認同
非洲
台灣
大學生
涵化理論
社會建構理論
西方媒體接觸
世界主義
非洲接觸行為
偏誤察覺
stereotype endorsement
Africa
Taiwan
university students
cultivation theory
theory of social construction of reality
Western media exposure
cosmopolitanism
contact
perceived bias
日期 2014
上傳時間 1-Oct-2014 13:38:48 (UTC+8)
摘要 大學生是一群熱切使用媒體和科技的世界公民，他們特別會透過新媒體接觸來自整個地球村的大量資訊。大學生可以透過學校課程與活動、與國際學生社群互動以及到國外旅行都是其中的管道。本研究援引社會建構理論與涵化理論，以質性研究探討台灣大學生的人口變項、與非洲接觸行為、西方媒體使用、世界主義意識以及媒體呈現偏誤之察覺與台灣大學生對非洲刻板印象建構之間的關係。 線上問卷收集共215位台灣大學生有效樣本。研究顯示非洲接觸行為與媒體呈現偏誤之察覺，皆與刻板印象認同呈現正相關。
University students are some of the more cosmopolitan groups in society, as voracious consumers of media and technology, especially new media, and exposed to a plethora of information about the global community. University courses, interaction with the international student communities, events on-campus and opportunities to travel abroad are some of the avenues available to them. Using quantitative analysis, this study examined the relationships between demographic and contact variables, Western media exposure, cosmopolitanism and perceived bias of media portrayals and its effect on Taiwanese university students’ endorsement of stereotypes of Africa. The research framework is informed by the theory of social construction of reality and the cultivation theory. Using an online survey, data was collected and analyzed from a sample of 215 Taiwanese university students. The analysis reveals that contact with Africa and perceived bias of media portrayals have the most significant influence on stereotype endorsement.
參考文獻 Adeyemi, M. B (2011). Sources of Positive Stereotypes: Perspectives of Junior Secondary Students in Botswana. International Journal of Scientific Research in Education, 4, 27-35.
About ATEF (n.d). Africa Taiwan Economic Forum. Retrieved August 4, 2014, from http://www.africa.org.tw/introduction_english_1.asp
Asia Internet Usage Stats Facebook and Population Statistics. (n.d.). Asia Internet Usage Stats Facebook and Population Statistics. Retrieved May 20, 2014, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm
APIRA (2013). Internet in Asia Pacific region: A comparative report. CNNIC Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality; a treatise in the sociology of knowledge, ([1st ed.). Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
Banjo, O. (2008). For Us Only? Perceiving Bias in Black Entertainment. Conference Papers International Communication Association, 1-25.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction In Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic And Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
Boyd-Barrett, O., & Braham, P. (Eds). (1987). Media, Knowledge and Power. Beckenham, Kent :Croom Helm.
Carels, R. A., Domoff, S. E., Burmeister, J. M., Koball, A. M., Hinman, N. G., Davis, A. K. (2013). Examining Perceived Stereotype Threat among Overweight/Obese Adults Using a Multi- Threat Framework. Obesity Facts, 258-268.
Chavis, R. (1998, October 2). Africa in the Western Media. Retrieved May 25, 2014, from http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Workshop/chavis98.html
Chou, C. (2001). Internet Heavy Use and Addiction among Taiwanese College Students: An Online Interview Study. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 4(5), 573-585.
Cribbs, S., & Austin, D. (2011). Enduring Pictures in Our Heads: The Continuance of Authoritarianism and Racial Stereotyping. Journal of Black Studies, 42(3), 334-359.
Cultivation Theory. (n.d.). Mass Communication Theory. Retrieved May 22, 2014, from http://masscommtheory.com/theory-overviews/cultivation-theory/
Czaja, R & Blair, Johnny (1996). Designing Surveys. Thousand Oaks, California: Pine Forge Press
Dixon, T.L. (2000). A Social Cognitive Approach To Studying Racial Stereotyping In The Mass Media. African American Perspectives , 6, 60-68.
Duodu, C. (2000, Jul). The Western Media And Africa. New African, 25-26. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/230220484?accountid=10067
Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, J. (2006). Media Bias And Reputation. Journal of Political Economy, 114(2), 280-316.
Grant, R. W., & Sugarman, J. (2004). Ethics in Human Subjects Research: Do Incentives Matter? Journal Of Medicine & Philosophy, 29(6), 717-738.
Gunesch, K. (2004). Education For Cosmopolitanism: Cosmopolitanism As A Personal Cultural Identity Model For And Within International Education. Journal of Research in International Education, 3(3), 251-275.
Hale, N. (1998). Effects of age and interpersonal contact on stereotyping of the elderly. Current Psychology, 17(1), 28-38.
Hawk, B. G. (1992). Africa`s media image. New York: Praeger.

Hong, Junhao (1998). The Internationalization of Television in China: The Evolution of Ideology, Society and Media Since the Reform. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Ibroscheva, E., & Ramaprasad, J. (2008). Do media matter? Journal Of Intercultural Communication, (16), 6.
Jeffres, L. W., Neuendorf, K., & Atkin, D. J. (2012). Acquiring Knowledge From the Media in the Internet Age. Communication Quarterly, 60(1), 59-79.
Jensen, K., & Helles, R. (2011). The Internet as a cultural forum: Implications for research. New Media & Society, 13(4), 517-533.
Kang, Y., & Yang, K. C. (2011). The Rhetoric of Ethnic Identity Construction Among Taiwanese Immigrants in the United States. Howard Journal Of Communications, 22(2), 163-182.
Kayser-Bril, N. (2014, January 24). Africa is not a country. theguardian.com. Retrieved May 29, 2014, from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/24/africa-clinton
Kean, L., Prividera, L. C., Boyce, A., & Curry, T. (2012). Media Use, Media Literacy, and African American Females’ Food Consumption Patterns. Howard Journal Of Communications, 23(3), 197-214.
Kleingeld, P. (2002, Feb 23). Cosmopolitanism. Retrieved August 28, 2014.Retrieved June 23, 2014, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmopolitanism/
Kunovich, R. M. (2004). Social structural position and prejudice: An exploration of cross- national differences in regression slopes. Social Science Research, 33, 20-44.

Lee, M. J., Bichard, S. L., Irey, M. S., Walt, H. M., & Carlson, A. J. (2009). Television Viewing and Ethnic Stereotypes: Do College Students Form Stereotypical Perceptions of Ethnic Groups as a Result of Heavy Television Consumption? Howard Journal Of Communications, 20(1), 95- 110.
Lewis, T., Martin, F., & Sun, W. (2012). Lifestyling Asia? Shaping Modernity And Selfhood On Life-Advice Programming. International Journal Of Cultural Studies, 15(6), 537-566.
Malin, B. J. (2011). A Very Popular Blog: The Internet And The Possibilities Of Publicity. New Media & Society, 13(2), 187-202.
Mastro, D., Lapinski, M., Kopacz, M. A., & Behm-Morawitz, E. (2009). The Influence of Exposure to Depictions of Race and Crime in TV News on Viewer`s Social Judgments. Journal Of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(4), 615-635.
McKeever, B., Riffe, D., & Carpentier, F. (2012). Perceived Hostile Media Bias, Presumed Media Influence, and Opinions About Immigrants and Immigration. Southern Communication Journal, 77(5), 420-437.
Mezzana, D. (n.d.). Representations: A Cancerous Image. Retrieved May 25, 2014, from http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/digitaldemocracy/mezzana.htm
Moreno, K.N. & Bodenhausen, G.V. (1999). Resisting Stereotype Change: The Role of Motivation and Attentional Capacity in Defending Social Beliefs. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations October 1, 2001 4: 327-339
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2009). Cosmopolitan Communications: Cultural Diversity in a Globalized World. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Oliver, J. E., & Mendelberg, T. (2000). Reconsidering the environmental determinants of White racial attitudes. American Journal of Political Science, 44, 574-589.
Osunde, E. O., & Tlou, J. (1996). Persisting and Common Stereotypes in U.S. Students` Knowledge of Africa: A Study of Pre-service Social Studies Teachers. Social Studies, 87(3), 119.
Ramasubramanian, S. (2005). A Content Analysis of the Portrayal of India in Films Produced in the West. Howard Journal Of Communications, 16(4), 243-265.
Ramasubramanian, S. (2011). The Impact of Stereotypical Versus Counterstereotypical Media Exemplars on Racial Attitudes, Causal Attributions, and Support for Affirmative Action. Communication Research, 38(4), 497-516.
Regis, H. A. (2009). Interest in Mass Media Reports and Orientation to Africa and the USA. Journal Of Pan African Studies, 2(8), 77-100.
Roudometof, V. (2005). Transnationalism, Cosmopolitanism and Glocalization. Current Sociology, 53(1), 113-135.
Rubin, H.J, Rubin I.S. (2005). Qualitative Interviews: The Art of Hearing Data (2nd ed.). California: Sage Publications.
Rybina, L., Reardon, J., & Humphrey, J (2010). Patriotism, Cosmopolitanism, Consumer Ethnocentrism and Purchase Behavior in Kazazhstan. Organizations and Markets in Emerging Economies, 1, 92-107.
Sanders, M. S., & Ramasubramanian, S. (2012). An Examination of African Americans` Stereotyped Perceptions of Fictional Media Characters. Howard Journal Of Communications, 23(1), 17-39.
Schemer, C., Matthes, J., & Wirth, W. (2009). Media Effects on Group-Related Stereotypes and Policy Opinions: Evidence From a Two-Wave Panel Survey in a Political Campaign. Conferences Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-43
Sherman, J. W. (1996). Development and mental representation of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1126-1141.
Sinclair, J., Jacka, E., & Cunningham, S. (1996). New patterns in global television: peripheral vision. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Siu, W. (2009). Social construction of reality. The tobacco issue. Critical Public Health, 19(1), 23-44.
Smith, D. (2006, Jun 23). Time to tell the truth. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/23/outlook.development
Tai-Quan, P., & Zhu, J. H. (2011). A Game Of Win-Win Or Win-Lose? Revisiting The Internet’s Influence On Sociability And Use Of Traditional Media. New Media & Society, 13(4), 568-586.
Tal, D., & Teichman, Y. (2005). Stereotypes and prejudice in conflict representations of Arabs in Israeli Jewish society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tan, A. S., Li, S., & Simpson, C. (1986). American TV and Social Stereotypes Of Americans in Taiwan and Mexico. Journalism Quarterly, 63(4), 809-814.
Thai, J. N., Walter, L. C., Eng, C., & Smith, A. K. (2013). Every Patient Is an Individual: Clinicians Balance Individual Factors When Discussing Prognosis with Diverse Frail Elderly Adults. Journal Of The American Geriatrics Society, 61(2), 264-269.
Thussu, D.K (2000). International Communication: Continuity and Change. London: Arnold Publishers.
Türken, S., & Rudmin, F. D (2013). On Psychological Effects of Globalization: Development of a Scale of Global Identity. Psychology & Society, 5, 63-89.
Versi, A. (2004, 05). Reprogramming The Western Media. African Business. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/220444252?accountid=10067
Ward, L. (2004). Wading Through the Stereotypes: Positive and Negative Associations Between Media Use and Black Adolescents` Conceptions of Self. Developmental Psychology, 40(2), 284-294.
Williams, S. (2009). Ways of Seeing Africa. Africa: Bibliography (Edinburgh University Press), 2009(1), vii-xiv.
Willnat, L., He, Z., & Xiaoming, H (1997). Foreign Media Exposure and Perceptions of Americans in Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Singapore. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 74, 738-756.
When Hollywood Goes Africa. (n.d.). Crawfurd Homepage. Retrieved May 25, 2014, from http://crawfurd.dk/africa/hollywood.htm
World bank official says western world misinformed about africa. (2000, May 15). Canadian Press NewsWire. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/359647863?accountid=10067
Wyk, A. V (2007). The Role of NGOs in Canada and the USA in the Transformation of the Socio-Cultural Structures in Africa. Africa Development. Vol. XXXII, No. 2, 2007, pp. 66–96
Yong, A.G & Pearce, S. (2013). A Beginner’s Guide to Factor Analysis: Focusing on Exploratory Factor Analysis. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology 9(2), 79-94.
Yunying, Z., & Tan, A. (2011). Impact of Mass Media during the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election: A Cross-Cultural Study of Stereotype Change in China and the United States. Communication Studies, 62(4), 353-371.
Zhang, Q. (2010). Asian Americans Beyond the Model Minority Stereotype: The Nerdy and the Left Out. Journal Of International & Intercultural Communication, 3(1), 20-37.
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
國際傳播英語碩士學位學程(IMICS)
100461021
103
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0100461021
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 郭貞zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Kuo, Chengen_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 慕以萱zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Moi, Barbaraen_US
dc.creator (作者) 慕以萱zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Moi, Barbaraen_US
dc.date (日期) 2014en_US
dc.date.accessioned 1-Oct-2014 13:38:48 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 1-Oct-2014 13:38:48 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 1-Oct-2014 13:38:48 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0100461021en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/70301-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國際傳播英語碩士學位學程(IMICS)zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 100461021zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 103zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 大學生是一群熱切使用媒體和科技的世界公民，他們特別會透過新媒體接觸來自整個地球村的大量資訊。大學生可以透過學校課程與活動、與國際學生社群互動以及到國外旅行都是其中的管道。本研究援引社會建構理論與涵化理論，以質性研究探討台灣大學生的人口變項、與非洲接觸行為、西方媒體使用、世界主義意識以及媒體呈現偏誤之察覺與台灣大學生對非洲刻板印象建構之間的關係。 線上問卷收集共215位台灣大學生有效樣本。研究顯示非洲接觸行為與媒體呈現偏誤之察覺，皆與刻板印象認同呈現正相關。zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) University students are some of the more cosmopolitan groups in society, as voracious consumers of media and technology, especially new media, and exposed to a plethora of information about the global community. University courses, interaction with the international student communities, events on-campus and opportunities to travel abroad are some of the avenues available to them. Using quantitative analysis, this study examined the relationships between demographic and contact variables, Western media exposure, cosmopolitanism and perceived bias of media portrayals and its effect on Taiwanese university students’ endorsement of stereotypes of Africa. The research framework is informed by the theory of social construction of reality and the cultivation theory. Using an online survey, data was collected and analyzed from a sample of 215 Taiwanese university students. The analysis reveals that contact with Africa and perceived bias of media portrayals have the most significant influence on stereotype endorsement.en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents I. Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………..... i
II. Abstract……………………………………………………………………….. ii
III. Chinese Abstract中文摘要…………………………………………………… iii
IV. Table of contents……………………………………………………………… iv
V. List of Tables………………………………………………………………….. vi
VI. List of Figures………………………………………………………………… vii
VII. List of Appendices……………………………………………………………. viii

1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………… 1
1.1 Purpose of Study……………………………………………………………… 3
1.2 Significance of Study…………………………………………………………. 3

2. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………………. 5
2.1 Stereotypes……………………………………………………………………. 5
2.1.1 Social Cultural Approach to Studying Stereotypes………………….. 6
2.1.2 Contact……………………………………………………………….. 8
2.1.3 Stereotypes and the Media…………………………………………… 8
2.1.4 Stereotypes of Africa in Global Media………………………………. 9
2.2 Media Literacy………………………………………………………………. 17
2.3 Cultural Protectionism in Taiwan……………………………………………. 18
2.4 Traditional Media Vs. Internet……………………………………………… 18
2.5 Cosmopolitanism……………………………………………………………. 20
2.6 Theory………………………………………………………………………. 22
2.6.1 Theory of Social Construction of Reality…………………………… 22
2.6.2 Cultivation Theory…………………………………………………… 23

3. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………….. 25
3.1 Method Selection Rationale…………………………………………………… 25
3.2 Research Design………………………………………………………………. 26
3.3 Data Collection……………………………………………………………….. 27
3.4 Pilot Study……………………………………………………………………. 28
3.5 Measurement of Variables……………………………………………………. 28
3.5.1 Demographics………………………………………………………… 28
3.5.2 Contact……………………………………………………………….. 28
3.5.3 Cosmopolitanism…………………………………………………….. 29
3.5.4 Perceived Bias of portrayals………………………………………….. 29
3.5.5 Western Media Exposure…………………………………………….. 30
3.5.6 Stereotype Endorsement……………………………………………… 33
3.6 Research Framework & Hypotheses…………………………………………. 35

4. RESULTS……………………………………………………………………….. 38
4.1 Descriptive Analysis………………………………………………………….. 38
4.1.1 Demographics…………………………………………………………. 38
4.1.2 Contact……………………………………………………………….. 39
4.1.3 Cosmopolitanism…………………………………………................... 39
4.1.4 Perceived Bias of portrayals…………………………………………... 40
4.1.5 Western Media Exposure……………………………………………... 40
4.1.6 Stereotype Endorsement………………………………………………. 42
4.2 Hypothesis Testing……………………………………………………………. 43
4.2.1 Hypothesis 1…………………………………………………………... 44
4.2.2 Hypothesis 2…………………………………………………………... 44
4.2.3 Hypothesis 3…………………………………………………………... 45
4.2.4 Hypothesis 4…………………………………………………………... 45
4.2.5 Hypothesis 5…………………………………………………………... 46
4.2.6 Hypothesis 6…………………………………………………………... 46
4.2.7 Hypothesis 7…………………………………………………………... 46
4.2.8 Research Question 1…………………………………………………... 51

5. DISCUSSION…………………………………………………………………….. 52
5.1 Limitations……………………………………………………………... 55
5.2 Implications…………………………………………………………….. 55
6. REFERENCES………………………………………………………………......... 56
7. APPENDICES……………………………………………………………….......... 64		zh_TW
dc.format.extent 2273822 bytes-
dc.format.mimetype application/pdf-
dc.language.iso en_US-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0100461021en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 刻板印象認同zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 非洲zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 台灣zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 大學生zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 涵化理論zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 社會建構理論zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 西方媒體接觸zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 世界主義zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 非洲接觸行為zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 偏誤察覺zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) stereotype endorsementen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Africaen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Taiwanen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) university studentsen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) cultivation theoryen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) theory of social construction of realityen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Western media exposureen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) cosmopolitanismen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) contacten_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) perceived biasen_US
dc.title (題名) 台灣人怎麼看非洲? 台灣大學生的刻板印象認可程度之探索式研究zh_TW
dc.title (題名) Taiwan’s Eye on Africa: An Exploratory Study of Stereotype Endorsement Among Taiwanese University Studentsen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Adeyemi, M. B (2011). Sources of Positive Stereotypes: Perspectives of Junior Secondary Students in Botswana. International Journal of Scientific Research in Education, 4, 27-35.
About ATEF (n.d). Africa Taiwan Economic Forum. Retrieved August 4, 2014, from http://www.africa.org.tw/introduction_english_1.asp
Asia Internet Usage Stats Facebook and Population Statistics. (n.d.). Asia Internet Usage Stats Facebook and Population Statistics. Retrieved May 20, 2014, from http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats3.htm
APIRA (2013). Internet in Asia Pacific region: A comparative report. CNNIC Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality; a treatise in the sociology of knowledge, ([1st ed.). Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
Banjo, O. (2008). For Us Only? Perceiving Bias in Black Entertainment. Conference Papers International Communication Association, 1-25.
Baron, R. M., & Kenny, D. A. (1986). The Moderator-Mediator Variable Distinction In Social Psychological Research: Conceptual, Strategic And Statistical Considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
Boyd-Barrett, O., & Braham, P. (Eds). (1987). Media, Knowledge and Power. Beckenham, Kent :Croom Helm.
Carels, R. A., Domoff, S. E., Burmeister, J. M., Koball, A. M., Hinman, N. G., Davis, A. K. (2013). Examining Perceived Stereotype Threat among Overweight/Obese Adults Using a Multi- Threat Framework. Obesity Facts, 258-268.
Chavis, R. (1998, October 2). Africa in the Western Media. Retrieved May 25, 2014, from http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Workshop/chavis98.html
Chou, C. (2001). Internet Heavy Use and Addiction among Taiwanese College Students: An Online Interview Study. Cyberpsychology & Behavior, 4(5), 573-585.
Cribbs, S., & Austin, D. (2011). Enduring Pictures in Our Heads: The Continuance of Authoritarianism and Racial Stereotyping. Journal of Black Studies, 42(3), 334-359.
Cultivation Theory. (n.d.). Mass Communication Theory. Retrieved May 22, 2014, from http://masscommtheory.com/theory-overviews/cultivation-theory/
Czaja, R & Blair, Johnny (1996). Designing Surveys. Thousand Oaks, California: Pine Forge Press
Dixon, T.L. (2000). A Social Cognitive Approach To Studying Racial Stereotyping In The Mass Media. African American Perspectives , 6, 60-68.
Duodu, C. (2000, Jul). The Western Media And Africa. New African, 25-26. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/230220484?accountid=10067
Gentzkow, M., & Shapiro, J. (2006). Media Bias And Reputation. Journal of Political Economy, 114(2), 280-316.
Grant, R. W., & Sugarman, J. (2004). Ethics in Human Subjects Research: Do Incentives Matter? Journal Of Medicine & Philosophy, 29(6), 717-738.
Gunesch, K. (2004). Education For Cosmopolitanism: Cosmopolitanism As A Personal Cultural Identity Model For And Within International Education. Journal of Research in International Education, 3(3), 251-275.
Hale, N. (1998). Effects of age and interpersonal contact on stereotyping of the elderly. Current Psychology, 17(1), 28-38.
Hawk, B. G. (1992). Africa`s media image. New York: Praeger.

Hong, Junhao (1998). The Internationalization of Television in China: The Evolution of Ideology, Society and Media Since the Reform. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers.
Ibroscheva, E., & Ramaprasad, J. (2008). Do media matter? Journal Of Intercultural Communication, (16), 6.
Jeffres, L. W., Neuendorf, K., & Atkin, D. J. (2012). Acquiring Knowledge From the Media in the Internet Age. Communication Quarterly, 60(1), 59-79.
Jensen, K., & Helles, R. (2011). The Internet as a cultural forum: Implications for research. New Media & Society, 13(4), 517-533.
Kang, Y., & Yang, K. C. (2011). The Rhetoric of Ethnic Identity Construction Among Taiwanese Immigrants in the United States. Howard Journal Of Communications, 22(2), 163-182.
Kayser-Bril, N. (2014, January 24). Africa is not a country. theguardian.com. Retrieved May 29, 2014, from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jan/24/africa-clinton
Kean, L., Prividera, L. C., Boyce, A., & Curry, T. (2012). Media Use, Media Literacy, and African American Females’ Food Consumption Patterns. Howard Journal Of Communications, 23(3), 197-214.
Kleingeld, P. (2002, Feb 23). Cosmopolitanism. Retrieved August 28, 2014.Retrieved June 23, 2014, from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/cosmopolitanism/
Kunovich, R. M. (2004). Social structural position and prejudice: An exploration of cross- national differences in regression slopes. Social Science Research, 33, 20-44.

Lee, M. J., Bichard, S. L., Irey, M. S., Walt, H. M., & Carlson, A. J. (2009). Television Viewing and Ethnic Stereotypes: Do College Students Form Stereotypical Perceptions of Ethnic Groups as a Result of Heavy Television Consumption? Howard Journal Of Communications, 20(1), 95- 110.
Lewis, T., Martin, F., & Sun, W. (2012). Lifestyling Asia? Shaping Modernity And Selfhood On Life-Advice Programming. International Journal Of Cultural Studies, 15(6), 537-566.
Malin, B. J. (2011). A Very Popular Blog: The Internet And The Possibilities Of Publicity. New Media & Society, 13(2), 187-202.
Mastro, D., Lapinski, M., Kopacz, M. A., & Behm-Morawitz, E. (2009). The Influence of Exposure to Depictions of Race and Crime in TV News on Viewer`s Social Judgments. Journal Of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 53(4), 615-635.
McKeever, B., Riffe, D., & Carpentier, F. (2012). Perceived Hostile Media Bias, Presumed Media Influence, and Opinions About Immigrants and Immigration. Southern Communication Journal, 77(5), 420-437.
Mezzana, D. (n.d.). Representations: A Cancerous Image. Retrieved May 25, 2014, from http://cyber.law.harvard.edu/digitaldemocracy/mezzana.htm
Moreno, K.N. & Bodenhausen, G.V. (1999). Resisting Stereotype Change: The Role of Motivation and Attentional Capacity in Defending Social Beliefs. Group Processes & Intergroup Relations October 1, 2001 4: 327-339
Norris, P., & Inglehart, R. (2009). Cosmopolitan Communications: Cultural Diversity in a Globalized World. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Oliver, J. E., & Mendelberg, T. (2000). Reconsidering the environmental determinants of White racial attitudes. American Journal of Political Science, 44, 574-589.
Osunde, E. O., & Tlou, J. (1996). Persisting and Common Stereotypes in U.S. Students` Knowledge of Africa: A Study of Pre-service Social Studies Teachers. Social Studies, 87(3), 119.
Ramasubramanian, S. (2005). A Content Analysis of the Portrayal of India in Films Produced in the West. Howard Journal Of Communications, 16(4), 243-265.
Ramasubramanian, S. (2011). The Impact of Stereotypical Versus Counterstereotypical Media Exemplars on Racial Attitudes, Causal Attributions, and Support for Affirmative Action. Communication Research, 38(4), 497-516.
Regis, H. A. (2009). Interest in Mass Media Reports and Orientation to Africa and the USA. Journal Of Pan African Studies, 2(8), 77-100.
Roudometof, V. (2005). Transnationalism, Cosmopolitanism and Glocalization. Current Sociology, 53(1), 113-135.
Rubin, H.J, Rubin I.S. (2005). Qualitative Interviews: The Art of Hearing Data (2nd ed.). California: Sage Publications.
Rybina, L., Reardon, J., & Humphrey, J (2010). Patriotism, Cosmopolitanism, Consumer Ethnocentrism and Purchase Behavior in Kazazhstan. Organizations and Markets in Emerging Economies, 1, 92-107.
Sanders, M. S., & Ramasubramanian, S. (2012). An Examination of African Americans` Stereotyped Perceptions of Fictional Media Characters. Howard Journal Of Communications, 23(1), 17-39.
Schemer, C., Matthes, J., & Wirth, W. (2009). Media Effects on Group-Related Stereotypes and Policy Opinions: Evidence From a Two-Wave Panel Survey in a Political Campaign. Conferences Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-43
Sherman, J. W. (1996). Development and mental representation of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 70, 1126-1141.
Sinclair, J., Jacka, E., & Cunningham, S. (1996). New patterns in global television: peripheral vision. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Siu, W. (2009). Social construction of reality. The tobacco issue. Critical Public Health, 19(1), 23-44.
Smith, D. (2006, Jun 23). Time to tell the truth. The Guardian. Retrieved from http://www.theguardian.com/world/2006/jun/23/outlook.development
Tai-Quan, P., & Zhu, J. H. (2011). A Game Of Win-Win Or Win-Lose? Revisiting The Internet’s Influence On Sociability And Use Of Traditional Media. New Media & Society, 13(4), 568-586.
Tal, D., & Teichman, Y. (2005). Stereotypes and prejudice in conflict representations of Arabs in Israeli Jewish society. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Tan, A. S., Li, S., & Simpson, C. (1986). American TV and Social Stereotypes Of Americans in Taiwan and Mexico. Journalism Quarterly, 63(4), 809-814.
Thai, J. N., Walter, L. C., Eng, C., & Smith, A. K. (2013). Every Patient Is an Individual: Clinicians Balance Individual Factors When Discussing Prognosis with Diverse Frail Elderly Adults. Journal Of The American Geriatrics Society, 61(2), 264-269.
Thussu, D.K (2000). International Communication: Continuity and Change. London: Arnold Publishers.
Türken, S., & Rudmin, F. D (2013). On Psychological Effects of Globalization: Development of a Scale of Global Identity. Psychology & Society, 5, 63-89.
Versi, A. (2004, 05). Reprogramming The Western Media. African Business. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/220444252?accountid=10067
Ward, L. (2004). Wading Through the Stereotypes: Positive and Negative Associations Between Media Use and Black Adolescents` Conceptions of Self. Developmental Psychology, 40(2), 284-294.
Williams, S. (2009). Ways of Seeing Africa. Africa: Bibliography (Edinburgh University Press), 2009(1), vii-xiv.
Willnat, L., He, Z., & Xiaoming, H (1997). Foreign Media Exposure and Perceptions of Americans in Hong Kong, Shenzhen, and Singapore. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 74, 738-756.
When Hollywood Goes Africa. (n.d.). Crawfurd Homepage. Retrieved May 25, 2014, from http://crawfurd.dk/africa/hollywood.htm
World bank official says western world misinformed about africa. (2000, May 15). Canadian Press NewsWire. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/359647863?accountid=10067
Wyk, A. V (2007). The Role of NGOs in Canada and the USA in the Transformation of the Socio-Cultural Structures in Africa. Africa Development. Vol. XXXII, No. 2, 2007, pp. 66–96
Yong, A.G & Pearce, S. (2013). A Beginner’s Guide to Factor Analysis: Focusing on Exploratory Factor Analysis. Tutorials in Quantitative Methods for Psychology 9(2), 79-94.
Yunying, Z., & Tan, A. (2011). Impact of Mass Media during the 2008 U.S. Presidential Election: A Cross-Cultural Study of Stereotype Change in China and the United States. Communication Studies, 62(4), 353-371.
Zhang, Q. (2010). Asian Americans Beyond the Model Minority Stereotype: The Nerdy and the Left Out. Journal Of International & Intercultural Communication, 3(1), 20-37.		zh_TW