學術產出-Theses

題名 悲劇性新聞畫面對觀眾心理衝擊程度之初探
作者 蕭慧芬
貢獻者 鍾蔚文
蕭慧芬
關鍵詞 悲劇性新聞
負向情緒
tragedy news,
negative mood
日期 2004
上傳時間 17-Sep-2009 15:27:37 (UTC+8)
摘要 如果Alfred Hitchcock的電影會讓觀眾驚聲尖叫,如果喜劇泰斗Charlie Chaplin的戲劇會讓觀眾捧腹大笑;那麼真實的跳樓新聞、真實的滅門血案鏡頭,會不會讓觀眾痛苦難耐?

本篇論文企圖橫跨新聞學與心理學兩大領域,探討影響台灣民眾日常生活至深的電視新聞,其所播放的新聞畫面會帶給觀眾怎樣的心理衝擊?

本研究鎖定兩大主軸,第一、悲劇性新聞是否較中性新聞更易引發觀看者的負向情緒?第二、同樣的悲劇性新聞,若賦與不同的畫面剪輯,是否會導致觀看者出現不同的情緒反應?本研究之結論如下:其一、以新聞類型區分:悲劇性新聞〈跳樓及滅門血案〉和中性新聞同樣不會強烈引發觀看者的負向情緒;有趣的是,當觀看者愈覺得悲劇性新聞帶給其負向情緒,那麼就會愈感到中性新聞所具備的正向情緒;顯見不同類型的新聞會相互影響情緒反應。其二、以新聞畫面區隔:無論是醫院急診室等相關畫面,或直接呈現跳樓及滅門血案的鏡頭,兩者引發的情緒反應並沒有“顯著差異”;僅管差異性不強,但觀看跳樓、血跡鏡頭確確實實會引發較多的負向情緒,尤其看到墜樓鏡頭會特別感到“緊張、害怕”。當然,收看悲劇性新聞不全然是負向情緒表現較為突出,本研究也發現觀看者在正向情緒反應上,顯示出相當“關心、關愛”悲劇性新聞。

至於悲劇性新聞的鏡頭處理與觀眾情緒反應之間的關連性,實驗結果顯示:畫面內容具震憾性、色調明亮、特寫鏡頭、跟拍鏡頭、畫面時間長、具聲音效果者,都會讓人印象深刻。在男女性別研究上,本論文發現不同性別收看悲劇性新聞時會各自站在不同的角色去詮釋新聞:女性會站在弱勢的被害人角度,而男性則易傾向消防員、旁觀者甚或兇嫌的立場來看待此類新聞;思考立場相左,因而產生女性收看悲劇性新聞的負向情緒較男性為強的結果。
If Afred Hitchock’s horror films can make an audience scream out loud, and if Charlie Chaplin’s comedies can make an audience laugh until their stomach hurt, then would real life news footage of people jumping off buildings and bloody murders cause an audience to feel sad? This thesis combines the studies of journalism and psychology to explore how broadcast news psychologically impacts Taiwanese audiences.

This study focuses on 1) whether tragic news negatively influences viewers` mood more easily than neutral news does; and 2) if the same story edited with different images, causes viewers to feel differently. This study concludes that 1) based on news type: both neutral news and tragic news don`t appear to have a negative effect on viewers. More interestingly, the more that viewers feel that sad or bloody news brings a negative mood, the more they feel that neutral news positively affects their mood. And 2) based on the images types: if images like those of an emergency room are replaced by images of people leaping off buildings, using the same narrative, it doesn`t make viewers feel any more or less negative. What`s notable, however, is that when viewers see images of bloody scenes or of people jumping off buildings, the images still make them feel "nervous" or "afraid." On the other hand, this report also finds that viewers feel especially concerned or empathetic towards what is presented in news stories.

As for how tragedy news images influences views’ mood, this report finds that the event`s emotional impact, the color tone, brightness, close-ups shots, following shots, length of cut and sounds all contribute to the impression the story leaves on the viewer. On the difference between how men and women react to new stories, the statistics show that women will empathize with the victim and men tend to take the viewpoint of the fireman, witness or the suspect. Because men and women think differently, tragedy news stories affect the mood of women more than they affect the mood of men.
參考文獻 參考書目
第一節、中文參考書目
王秀(1996):《生活事件、生活壓力及身心疾病的動力性關係》。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文。
王泰俐(2003):〈從麥克魯漢觀點檢視本土電視研究與雙重文本概念的演變〉,《中華傳播學刊》,4: 145-184。
王泰俐(2004):〈電視新聞節目「感官節目」之初探研究〉,《新聞學研究》,81: 1-40。
公共電視研發部編(2000):《災難報導與媒體的公共責任》。台北:公共電視。
早坂泰次郎、北林才知(1997):《電視心理學》。台北:生命潛能。
朱光潛(1993):《悲劇心理學 – 各種悲劇快感理論的批判研究》。台北:駱駝出版社。
朱玉芬(1995):《新聞結構對情感及興趣之影響》。政治大學新聞研究所
碩士論文。
Pierre Bourdieu 著,林志明譯(2002):《布赫迪厄論電視》。台北:麥田。
Richard S. Lazarus & Bernice N. Lazarus 著,李素卿譯(2002):《感性與理性 – 了解我們的情緒》。台北:五南。P.279、179。
李維(1994):《是牆?還是橋?人類行為的分析》。台北:桂冠圖書。
Julia C. Berryman,David J. Hargreaves,Kevin Howells & Elizabeth M. Ockleford 著,武躍國、武國城譯(2002):《心理與生活》。台北:五南。
林淑華(2001):《情緒察覺評量表之發展:性別、憂鬱、情緒性質及情緒重要性之影響》。高雄醫學院健康科學院行為科學研究所碩士論文。
邱玉嬋(1996):《電視新聞影音結構對回憶的影響》。國立中正大電訊傳播研究所碩士論文。
胡佩怡(1997):《恐慌發作認知模式之驗證:受試者組別與情境線索對吸入CO2/O2混合氣體效應之影響》。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文。
袁之琦(1991):《視覺訊息處理管道之互動關係研究》。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文。
Nicholas Mirzoeff著,陳芸芸譯(2004):《視覺文化導論心理》。台北:韋伯文化。
陳鳳如(2001):《我國報紙對重大災難新聞報導之研究—以九二一大地震為例》。國立台灣師範大學傳播研究所碩士論文。
康裕撰(1987):《音樂對情境焦慮與閱讀記憶之影響》。國立政治大學心理研究所碩士論文。
崔麗娟等著(2002):《心理學是什麼》。台北:揚智文化。
K.T. Strongman 著,游恆山譯(2002):《情緒心理學》。台北:五南。
葛樹人(1999):《心理測驗學》。台北:桂冠圖書。P487-488。
葉怡君(1999):《憂鬱對情緒性訊息處理之影響》。高雄醫學院行為科學研究所碩士論文。
楊博民(1997):《心理實驗綱要》。台北:五南。
臧國仁、蔡琰(2001):〈新聞美學 – 試論美學對新聞研究與實務的啟示〉,《新聞學研究》,66:29-60。
臧國仁、鍾蔚文(2000):〈災難事件與媒體報導:相觀研究簡述〉,《新聞學研究》,62:143-151。
鄭昭明(1993):《認知心理學》。台北:桂冠圖書。
鄭雅芬(1996):《無望型憂鬱理論下--「特定易感受性假設」之驗證》。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文。
蕭君予(2001):《創傷事件經歷者復原歷程之研究—以九二一受創者為例》。國立彰化師範大學輔導與諮商學系碩士論文。
B.J. Underwood & Shaughnessy著,洪蘭,曾志朗譯(1997):《心理學實驗研究方法》。台北:遠流。
Paul Martin Lester著,張霄亭總校閱(2003):《視覺傳播》。台北:雙葉書廊。P. 343、345
Rita L. Atkinson、Richard C. Arkinson、Edward E. Smith & Ernest R. Hilgard. 著,鄭伯勳,洪光遠譯(1991):《心理學概論》。台北:桂冠圖書。
英文參考書目
Allan, S.(1999). Newsculture. Buckingham: Open University Press.
Barrie Gunter(1987). Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News. 219-258
BBC(1993). Producers’ Guidelines. London: British Broadcasting Corporation.
Daniel Y. Levin & Daniel J. Simons(2000). Perceiving Stability in a Changing World: Combining Shots and Integrating Views in Motion Pictures and the Real Word. Media Psychology. 337-381.
ED Cairns (1988). Impact of Television News Exposure on Children’s Perceptions of Violence in Northern Ireland. The Journal of Social Psychology. 453-457
E.M.Jr. & Lazarus, R.S.(1966). Anxiety and Behavior. New York:Academic Press. pp225-262
Graeme Burton (2002). More than Meets the Eye: an introdution to media studies. London. 17-22. 169-174
Grings, W. W., & Dawson, M. E.(1978). Emotions and bodily responses: Apsychophysiological approach. New York: Academic Press.
Hayward Horton & Steven Stack(1984). The effect of television on national suicide rate. The Journal of Social Psychology, 123, 141-142.
Jamie L. Goldenberg, Tom Pyszczynski, Kerri D. Johnson, Jeff Greenberg & Sheldon Solomon(1999). The appeal of Tragedy: a terror management prespective. Media Psychology. 313-329.
Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann(1991). Responding To The Screen : Reception and Reaction Processes. 103-133
Jinok Son, Stephen D. Reese & William R. Davie(1987). Effects of Visual-verbal redundancy and recaps on television news learning. Broadcast Education Assdication. pp. 207-216.
John Taylor(1998). Body Horror:photojournalism,catastrophe and war. New York. 2-4
Kimmel, H.D.,van Olst,E.H. & Orlebeke, J.F.(Eds.)(1979). The orienting reflex in humans. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kristen Harrison & Joanne Cantor(1999). Media Psychology. Tales from the Screen:Enduring Fright Reactions to Scary Media. p.97-116
Lynn, R.(1966). Attention, arousal and the orientation reaction. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
M.Arnold(1970). Feelings and emotions. New York:Academic Press. pp207-232
Monica Suckfull(2000). Film Analysis and Psychophysiology: Effects of Moments of Impact and Protagonists. 269-295.
Metallinos, N.(1996). Television aesthetics: Perceptural, cognitive, and compositional bases. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Paul Martin Lester(1995).Visual Communication : Images with Messages. USA. p. 125、418
Richard S. Lazarus & Bernice N. Lazarus(1994). Passion and Reason.
Shirley Biagi(1995). Media Impact: An introduction to mass mediat. p.281
Singer, J.L. (1980). The power and limitations of television: A cognitive-affective analysis. In P. H. Tannenbaum (Ed.), The entertainment funtions of television (pp.31-65). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Sparks, C., & Tulloch, J. (2000). Introduction: The panic over tabloid news.
In C. Sparks & J. Tulloch (Eds.), Tabloid tales: Global debates over media standards (pp.1-40). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
Stacy L. Smith & Barbara J. Wilson(2000). Children’s reaction to a television news story: The impact of video footage and proximity of the crime. Communication Research. Vol 27(5): 641-673.
Steven J. Hoekstra, Richard Jackson Harris & Angela L. Helmick(1999). Autobiographical memories about the experience of seeing frightening movies in childhood. Media Psychology. 117-140.
Susan Sontag(1979). On Photography. New York. p. 41
Wendy M. Johnston & Graham C. L. Davey(1979). The psychological impact of negative TV news bulletins: The catastrophizing of personal worries. British Journal of Psychology. Vol 99(1): 85-91.
Wright, J. C. & Huston-Stein, A.(1979). The influence of formal features in children’s television on attention and social behavior. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, San Francisco, CA.
Zillmann, D. & Bryant, J. (1983). Uses and effects of humor in educational ventures. In P.E. McGhee & J.H. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of humor research: Vol. 2. Applied studies (pp. 173-193). New York: Springer-Verlag.
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
傳播學院碩士在職專班
90941008
93
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0090941008
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 鍾蔚文zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 蕭慧芬zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) 蕭慧芬zh_TW
dc.date (日期) 2004en_US
dc.date.accessioned 17-Sep-2009 15:27:37 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 17-Sep-2009 15:27:37 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 17-Sep-2009 15:27:37 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0090941008en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/33082-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 傳播學院碩士在職專班zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 90941008zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 93zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 如果Alfred Hitchcock的電影會讓觀眾驚聲尖叫,如果喜劇泰斗Charlie Chaplin的戲劇會讓觀眾捧腹大笑;那麼真實的跳樓新聞、真實的滅門血案鏡頭,會不會讓觀眾痛苦難耐?

本篇論文企圖橫跨新聞學與心理學兩大領域,探討影響台灣民眾日常生活至深的電視新聞,其所播放的新聞畫面會帶給觀眾怎樣的心理衝擊?

本研究鎖定兩大主軸,第一、悲劇性新聞是否較中性新聞更易引發觀看者的負向情緒?第二、同樣的悲劇性新聞,若賦與不同的畫面剪輯,是否會導致觀看者出現不同的情緒反應?本研究之結論如下:其一、以新聞類型區分:悲劇性新聞〈跳樓及滅門血案〉和中性新聞同樣不會強烈引發觀看者的負向情緒;有趣的是,當觀看者愈覺得悲劇性新聞帶給其負向情緒,那麼就會愈感到中性新聞所具備的正向情緒;顯見不同類型的新聞會相互影響情緒反應。其二、以新聞畫面區隔:無論是醫院急診室等相關畫面,或直接呈現跳樓及滅門血案的鏡頭,兩者引發的情緒反應並沒有“顯著差異”;僅管差異性不強,但觀看跳樓、血跡鏡頭確確實實會引發較多的負向情緒,尤其看到墜樓鏡頭會特別感到“緊張、害怕”。當然,收看悲劇性新聞不全然是負向情緒表現較為突出,本研究也發現觀看者在正向情緒反應上,顯示出相當“關心、關愛”悲劇性新聞。

至於悲劇性新聞的鏡頭處理與觀眾情緒反應之間的關連性,實驗結果顯示:畫面內容具震憾性、色調明亮、特寫鏡頭、跟拍鏡頭、畫面時間長、具聲音效果者,都會讓人印象深刻。在男女性別研究上,本論文發現不同性別收看悲劇性新聞時會各自站在不同的角色去詮釋新聞:女性會站在弱勢的被害人角度,而男性則易傾向消防員、旁觀者甚或兇嫌的立場來看待此類新聞;思考立場相左,因而產生女性收看悲劇性新聞的負向情緒較男性為強的結果。
zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) If Afred Hitchock’s horror films can make an audience scream out loud, and if Charlie Chaplin’s comedies can make an audience laugh until their stomach hurt, then would real life news footage of people jumping off buildings and bloody murders cause an audience to feel sad? This thesis combines the studies of journalism and psychology to explore how broadcast news psychologically impacts Taiwanese audiences.

This study focuses on 1) whether tragic news negatively influences viewers` mood more easily than neutral news does; and 2) if the same story edited with different images, causes viewers to feel differently. This study concludes that 1) based on news type: both neutral news and tragic news don`t appear to have a negative effect on viewers. More interestingly, the more that viewers feel that sad or bloody news brings a negative mood, the more they feel that neutral news positively affects their mood. And 2) based on the images types: if images like those of an emergency room are replaced by images of people leaping off buildings, using the same narrative, it doesn`t make viewers feel any more or less negative. What`s notable, however, is that when viewers see images of bloody scenes or of people jumping off buildings, the images still make them feel "nervous" or "afraid." On the other hand, this report also finds that viewers feel especially concerned or empathetic towards what is presented in news stories.

As for how tragedy news images influences views’ mood, this report finds that the event`s emotional impact, the color tone, brightness, close-ups shots, following shots, length of cut and sounds all contribute to the impression the story leaves on the viewer. On the difference between how men and women react to new stories, the statistics show that women will empathize with the victim and men tend to take the viewpoint of the fireman, witness or the suspect. Because men and women think differently, tragedy news stories affect the mood of women more than they affect the mood of men.
en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents 第壹章 緒論 1
第一節 研究動機 ………..…………………………………….. 1
第二節 問題意識與研究目的(聲音與影像的戰爭) …………... 3

第貳章 文獻探討 6
第一節 視覺感官如何引發負面情緒 …………………………….. 6
第二節 視覺感官引發哪些負面情緒 …………………………….. 9

第參章 研究方法 13
第一節 研究之思考架構 ………………………………….……... 13
第二節 測量方法 ………………………………………… 15
第三節 研究設計 – 實驗文本的製作 …………………………… 19

第肆章 悲劇性新聞對觀眾的心理衝擊 ~ 研究結果分析  27
第一節 新聞類型與觀眾情緒反應的關連性 ……………………… 28
第二節 新聞畫面與觀眾情緒反應的關連性 ……………………… 34
第三節 悲劇性新聞的『單一構圖』與觀眾印象深淺的關連性 … 41
第四節 悲劇性新聞的『整體架構』與觀眾印象深淺的關連性 … 51
第五節 性別對於悲劇性新聞畫面的情緒差異 ………………… 59

第伍章 結論與建議 61
第一節 研究發現 …………………………………………………… 61
第二節 研究限制 …………………………………………………… 65
第三節 對實務工作者的建議 ……………………………………. 68

第陸章 參考書目 75
第一節 中文參考書目 ………………………………………….. 75
第二節 英文參考書目 ………………………………………….. 77
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dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0090941008en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 悲劇性新聞zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 負向情緒zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) tragedy news,en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) negative mooden_US
dc.title (題名) 悲劇性新聞畫面對觀眾心理衝擊程度之初探zh_TW
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 參考書目zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 第一節、中文參考書目zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 王秀(1996):《生活事件、生活壓力及身心疾病的動力性關係》。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 王泰俐(2003):〈從麥克魯漢觀點檢視本土電視研究與雙重文本概念的演變〉,《中華傳播學刊》,4: 145-184。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 王泰俐(2004):〈電視新聞節目「感官節目」之初探研究〉,《新聞學研究》,81: 1-40。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 公共電視研發部編(2000):《災難報導與媒體的公共責任》。台北:公共電視。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 早坂泰次郎、北林才知(1997):《電視心理學》。台北:生命潛能。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 朱光潛(1993):《悲劇心理學 – 各種悲劇快感理論的批判研究》。台北:駱駝出版社。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 朱玉芬(1995):《新聞結構對情感及興趣之影響》。政治大學新聞研究所zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Pierre Bourdieu 著,林志明譯(2002):《布赫迪厄論電視》。台北:麥田。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Richard S. Lazarus & Bernice N. Lazarus 著,李素卿譯(2002):《感性與理性 – 了解我們的情緒》。台北:五南。P.279、179。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 李維(1994):《是牆?還是橋?人類行為的分析》。台北:桂冠圖書。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Julia C. Berryman,David J. Hargreaves,Kevin Howells & Elizabeth M. Ockleford 著,武躍國、武國城譯(2002):《心理與生活》。台北:五南。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 林淑華(2001):《情緒察覺評量表之發展:性別、憂鬱、情緒性質及情緒重要性之影響》。高雄醫學院健康科學院行為科學研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 邱玉嬋(1996):《電視新聞影音結構對回憶的影響》。國立中正大電訊傳播研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 胡佩怡(1997):《恐慌發作認知模式之驗證:受試者組別與情境線索對吸入CO2/O2混合氣體效應之影響》。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 袁之琦(1991):《視覺訊息處理管道之互動關係研究》。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Nicholas Mirzoeff著,陳芸芸譯(2004):《視覺文化導論心理》。台北:韋伯文化。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 陳鳳如(2001):《我國報紙對重大災難新聞報導之研究—以九二一大地震為例》。國立台灣師範大學傳播研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 康裕撰(1987):《音樂對情境焦慮與閱讀記憶之影響》。國立政治大學心理研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 崔麗娟等著(2002):《心理學是什麼》。台北:揚智文化。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) K.T. Strongman 著,游恆山譯(2002):《情緒心理學》。台北:五南。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 葛樹人(1999):《心理測驗學》。台北:桂冠圖書。P487-488。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 葉怡君(1999):《憂鬱對情緒性訊息處理之影響》。高雄醫學院行為科學研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 楊博民(1997):《心理實驗綱要》。台北:五南。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 臧國仁、蔡琰(2001):〈新聞美學 – 試論美學對新聞研究與實務的啟示〉,《新聞學研究》,66:29-60。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 臧國仁、鍾蔚文(2000):〈災難事件與媒體報導:相觀研究簡述〉,《新聞學研究》,62:143-151。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 鄭昭明(1993):《認知心理學》。台北:桂冠圖書。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 鄭雅芬(1996):《無望型憂鬱理論下--「特定易感受性假設」之驗證》。國立台灣大學心理研究所碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 蕭君予(2001):《創傷事件經歷者復原歷程之研究—以九二一受創者為例》。國立彰化師範大學輔導與諮商學系碩士論文。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) B.J. Underwood & Shaughnessy著,洪蘭,曾志朗譯(1997):《心理學實驗研究方法》。台北:遠流。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Paul Martin Lester著,張霄亭總校閱(2003):《視覺傳播》。台北:雙葉書廊。P. 343、345zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Rita L. Atkinson、Richard C. Arkinson、Edward E. Smith & Ernest R. Hilgard. 著,鄭伯勳,洪光遠譯(1991):《心理學概論》。台北:桂冠圖書。zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) 英文參考書目zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Allan, S.(1999). Newsculture. Buckingham: Open University Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Barrie Gunter(1987). Poor Reception: Misunderstanding and Forgetting Broadcast News. 219-258zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) BBC(1993). Producers’ Guidelines. London: British Broadcasting Corporation.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Daniel Y. Levin & Daniel J. Simons(2000). Perceiving Stability in a Changing World: Combining Shots and Integrating Views in Motion Pictures and the Real Word. Media Psychology. 337-381.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) ED Cairns (1988). Impact of Television News Exposure on Children’s Perceptions of Violence in Northern Ireland. The Journal of Social Psychology. 453-457zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) E.M.Jr. & Lazarus, R.S.(1966). Anxiety and Behavior. New York:Academic Press. pp225-262zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Graeme Burton (2002). More than Meets the Eye: an introdution to media studies. London. 17-22. 169-174zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Grings, W. W., & Dawson, M. E.(1978). Emotions and bodily responses: Apsychophysiological approach. New York: Academic Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Hayward Horton & Steven Stack(1984). The effect of television on national suicide rate. The Journal of Social Psychology, 123, 141-142.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Jamie L. Goldenberg, Tom Pyszczynski, Kerri D. Johnson, Jeff Greenberg & Sheldon Solomon(1999). The appeal of Tragedy: a terror management prespective. Media Psychology. 313-329.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Jennings Bryant and Dolf Zillmann(1991). Responding To The Screen : Reception and Reaction Processes. 103-133zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Jinok Son, Stephen D. Reese & William R. Davie(1987). Effects of Visual-verbal redundancy and recaps on television news learning. Broadcast Education Assdication. pp. 207-216.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) John Taylor(1998). Body Horror:photojournalism,catastrophe and war. New York. 2-4zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Kimmel, H.D.,van Olst,E.H. & Orlebeke, J.F.(Eds.)(1979). The orienting reflex in humans. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Kristen Harrison & Joanne Cantor(1999). Media Psychology. Tales from the Screen:Enduring Fright Reactions to Scary Media. p.97-116zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Lynn, R.(1966). Attention, arousal and the orientation reaction. Oxford: Pergamon Press.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) M.Arnold(1970). Feelings and emotions. New York:Academic Press. pp207-232zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Monica Suckfull(2000). Film Analysis and Psychophysiology: Effects of Moments of Impact and Protagonists. 269-295.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Metallinos, N.(1996). Television aesthetics: Perceptural, cognitive, and compositional bases. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Paul Martin Lester(1995).Visual Communication : Images with Messages. USA. p. 125、418zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Richard S. Lazarus & Bernice N. Lazarus(1994). Passion and Reason.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Shirley Biagi(1995). Media Impact: An introduction to mass mediat. p.281zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Singer, J.L. (1980). The power and limitations of television: A cognitive-affective analysis. In P. H. Tannenbaum (Ed.), The entertainment funtions of television (pp.31-65). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Sparks, C., & Tulloch, J. (2000). Introduction: The panic over tabloid news.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) In C. Sparks & J. Tulloch (Eds.), Tabloid tales: Global debates over media standards (pp.1-40). Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Stacy L. Smith & Barbara J. Wilson(2000). Children’s reaction to a television news story: The impact of video footage and proximity of the crime. Communication Research. Vol 27(5): 641-673.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Steven J. Hoekstra, Richard Jackson Harris & Angela L. Helmick(1999). Autobiographical memories about the experience of seeing frightening movies in childhood. Media Psychology. 117-140.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Susan Sontag(1979). On Photography. New York. p. 41zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Wendy M. Johnston & Graham C. L. Davey(1979). The psychological impact of negative TV news bulletins: The catastrophizing of personal worries. British Journal of Psychology. Vol 99(1): 85-91.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Wright, J. C. & Huston-Stein, A.(1979). The influence of formal features in children’s television on attention and social behavior. Paper presented at the meeting of the Society for Research in Child Development, San Francisco, CA.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Zillmann, D. & Bryant, J. (1983). Uses and effects of humor in educational ventures. In P.E. McGhee & J.H. Goldstein (Eds.), Handbook of humor research: Vol. 2. Applied studies (pp. 173-193). New York: Springer-Verlag.zh_TW