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題名 漢語光桿分類詞組之分析
On the bare classifier phrase in Mandarin Chinese
作者 陳景芃
Chen, Ching Perng
貢獻者 何萬順
Her, One Soon
陳景芃
Chen, Ching Perng
關鍵詞 漢語
分類詞
分類詞組
光桿
Mandarin
classifier
classifier phrase
bare
日期 2012
上傳時間 1-Feb-2013 16:48:08 (UTC+8)
摘要 本篇論文分析光桿分類詞組[CL+N]在漢語的分佈位置。過去文獻中，學者們認為光桿分類詞組[CL+N]為不定數量詞組[yi+CL+N]的音韻弱化（Lu 1990, Chen 2004），且因為出現在主詞或主題的光桿分類詞組數量詞組[yi+CL+N]並不是不定語意，不定數量詞組音韻弱化的光桿分類詞組[CL+N]不得出現在這兩個位置(Cheng & Sybesma 1999/2005, Li 1998, Huang, Li & Li 2009)。在此前提下，可以得到兩個假設，第一，所有的不定數量詞組[yi+CL+N]都能弱化為光桿分類詞組[CL+N]。第二，所有的光桿分類詞組[CL+N]都只能在不定語意的位置出現。然而，在漢語裡，即使指涉數量的數量詞組[yi+CL+N]還是能弱化為光桿分類詞組[CL+N]，且並非所有的光桿分類詞組[CL+N]都出現在不定語意的位置。換句話說，過去文獻只能解釋而非預測光桿分類詞組[CL+N]在漢語中的分佈位置。
進一步檢視漢語裡光桿分類詞組[CL+N]的分佈位置，我認為指涉數量的數量詞組[yi+CL+N] 除了在比較語境，大多時候也能弱化為光桿分類詞組[CL+N]。另外，由於漢語裡的分類詞有許多附著語素的特徵，我認為應該將其分析為附著語素較為適當。從構詞的角度來看，漢語裡的分類詞需附著於前方的成分，不能單獨出現。句法上來說，漢語分類詞可以自由黏著在某幾詞類的宿主。音韻上，漢語的分類詞以最大音韻重量限制所選宿主。綜合以上幾點，我主張，限定或非限定的句法位置並非決定漢語光桿分類詞組[CL+N]出現的主要原因；決定漢語光桿分類詞組[CL+N]的出現因素應是分類詞是否能找到適當的宿主附著。有關合法宿主的制約條件，在我的論文裡也有詳細的討論。
This thesis investigates the distribution of the bare classifier phrase [CL+N] in Mandarin Chinese. Previous studies argue that [CL+N] is the phonological reduction of the indefinite numeral classifier phrase [yi+CL+N] (Lu 1990, Chen 2004), and it cannot occur in subject or topic position because [yi+CL+N] in these positions are never considered indefinite (Cheng & Sybesma 1999/2005, Li 1998, Huang, Li & Li 2009).

Two predictions are made from these analyses. First, all indefinite [yi+CL+N] can be reduced to [CL+N], and second, [CL+N] only occurs in positions which are considered indefinite. However, it is easily found in Mandarin Chinese that numeral classifier phrase denoting quantity can also be reduced to bare classifier phrase [CL+N], and that not all [CL+N] occur in indefinite positions. In other words, previous studies simply explain the occurrence of [CL+N], but fail to predict the occurrence of [CL+N].

With a close examination, I suggest that numeral classifier phrase [yi+CL+N] denoting quantity can also be reduced to bare classifier phrase [CL+N] except occurring in contrastive contexts. Also, I adopt the clitic account on classifiers in Mandarin since they share many properties with clitics. Morphologically, classifiers in Mandarin never appear in isolation but attach to preceding elements. Syntactically, they are free to cliticize to hosts belonging to different categories but are not subject to syntactic roles. Phonologically, classifiers in Mandarin subcategorize their hosts within a maximal number of moras. Therefore, I argue that it is not (in)definiteness that decides the occurrence of the bare classifier [CL+N] but whether it can find a legal host to cliticize. Constraints concerning to the legal hosts will also be discuss in detail in my thesis.
參考文獻 Adams, Karen. 1986. Numeral classifiers in Austroasiatic. Noun Classes and Categorization. ed. by C. Craig, 241-62. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Aikhenvald, Y. Alexandra. 2000. Classifiers: A typology of Noun Categorization Devices. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Anderson, Stephen R. 2005. Aspects of the Theory of Clitics. Oxford University Press.

Bošković, Željko. 2000. Second position cliticisation: syntax and/or phonology? Clitic Phenomena in European Languages, ed. by F. Beukema and M. den Dikken. 71-119. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Chao, Yuen-Ren. 1968. A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkely: University of California Press.

Chen, Ping. 2003. Indefinite determiner introducing definite referent: A special use of yi ‘one’ + classifier in Chinese. Lingua 113.12: 1169-1184.

Chen, Ping. 2004. Identifiability and definiteness in Chinese. Linguistics 42.6: 1129-1184

Cheng, Lisa and Rint Sybesma.1998. Yi-wan Tang, Yi-ge Tang: classifiers and massifiers. The Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies 28.3:385-412.

Cheng, Lisa and Rint Sybesma. 1999. Bare and not so-bare nouns and the structure of NP. Linguistic Inquiry 30.4:509-542.

Cheng, Lisa and Rint, Sybesma. 2005. Classifiers in four varieties of Chinese. The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Syntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chomsky, Naom. 1995. The Minimalist Program. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Duanmu, San. 2000. The Phonology of Standard Chinese. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Duanmu, San. 2001. Stress in Chinese. Chinese Phonology in Generative Grammar,ed. by De Bao Xu. 117-138. San Diego: Academic Press.

Frawley, William. 1992. Linguistic Semantics. Hillsdale, NJ, Hove & London: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Halpern, Aaron. 1995. On the Placement and Morphology of Clitics. Standford: CSLI Publications.

Harley, Heidi. 2003. Possession and the double object construction. Linguistic Variation Yearbook 2:31-70.

Heine, Bernd. 1997. Cognitive Foundations of Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Her, One-Soon and Chen-Tien Hsieh. 2010. On the semantic distinction between classifiers and measure words in Chinese. Language and Linguistics 10.2:357-419

----To appear. Distinguishing classifiers and measure words: A mathematical perspective and implications. To appear in Lingua.

Hsieh, Miao-Ling. 2008. The Internal Structure of Noun Phrases in Chinese. Taiwan

Journal of Linguistics: Book Series in Chinese Linguistics. No. 2. Taipei: Crane Publishing.

Huang, C.-T. James. 1982a. Move wh in a language without wh-movement. The Linguistics Review 1:369-416.

----1982b [1998]. Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. Doctoral dissertation, MIT; edited version published by Garland, New York, 1998.

----1987. Existential sentences in Chinese and (in)definiteness. The Representation of (In)definiteness, ed. by Eric Reuland and Alice ter Meulen, 226-253. Cambridge,Mass.: MIT Press.

Jakendoff, Ray. 1987. Consciousness and the Computational Mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Ji, Huimin. 2007. On the Syntax of Chinese Nominals. PhD Dissertation, the University of Georgia.

Klavans, Judith L. 1982. Some Problems in a Theory of Clitics. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club.
Klavans, Judith L. 1985. The independence of syntax and phonology in cliticization. Language 61:95-120.

Lakoff George. 1987. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Li, Audrey. 1996. Definite and indefinite existential constructions. Studies in
Linguistics Sciences 26:175-191.

Li, Audrey. 1998. Argument determiner phrases and number phrases. Linguistic Inquiry
29:4, 693-702.

Li, Charles and Sandra Thompson. 1981. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Lin, Yen-Hwei. 2007. The Sounds of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Lu, Shuxiang 1990 [1944]. Ge zi de yingyong fanwei, fu lun danweici qian yi zi de
tuoluo[Scope of the uses of ge and omission of yi in front of classifiers]. Lu Shuxiang Wenji [Collected Works of Lu Shuxiang]. Vol. 2, 144-175. Beijing: Shangwu Yinshuguan.

1990 [1948]. ba zi yongfa de yanjiu [Studies in the uses of ba]. Lu Shuxiang Wenji.[Collected Works of Lu Shuxiang]. Vol. 2, 176-199. Beijing: Shangwu Yinshuguan.

Lyons, Christopher. 1999. Definiteness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lyons, John. 1977. Semantics. 2vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oehrle, Richard. T. 1976. The Grammatical Status of the English Dative Alternation. PhD Dissertation, MIT.

Roberts, Ian. 2010. Agreement and Movement. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Sybesma, Rint. 1992. Causatives and Accomplishments: The case of Chinese ba. PhD
Dissertation, HIL/Leiden University.

Tai, James, H-Y. and Fang-yi Chao. 1994. A semantic study of the classifier zhang. Journal of Chinese Language Teachers Association 31.3: 67-78.

Tai, James H-Y. and Lianqing Wang. 1990. A semantic study of the classifier Taio. Journal of the Chinese Language Teachers Association 25.1: 35-56.

Tang, Chih-Chen Jane. 1990a. A note on the DP analysis of Chinese noun phrases.
Linguistics 28:337-354.

Tsai, W. –T. Dylan. 1995a. On Econominizing A-bar Dependencies. PhD Dissertation,MIT.

---- 1994b. On nomial islands and LF extraction in Chinese. Nature Language and Linguistic Theory 12:121-175.

----1996. Subject specificity, raising modals and extended mapping hypothesis. Paper presented at the Symposium on the Referential Properties of Noun Phrase, Los Angeles: City University of Southern California.

Yang, Rong. 2002. Common nouns, Classifiers, and Quantification in Chinese. Rutgers, State University of New Jersey, Dissertation.

Yip, Chak-Lam Colum. 2008. Complicating the Oversimplification: Chinese Numeral Classifiers and True Measures. PhD Dissertation, Marjorie K.M.

Zwicky, Arnold M. 1985. Clitics and particles. Language 61,2: 283-305.

Zwicky, Arnold M. and Geoffrey K. Pullum. 1983.Cliticization vs. inflection: English n’t, Language 59:502-13.

洪藝芳 (2003) ，敦煌社會經濟文書中的唐五代新興量詞研究。敦煌學，24:
83-114。

Taiwan Google: http://www.google.com.tw/
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
語言學研究所
99555002
101
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0099555002
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 何萬順zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Her, One Soonen_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 陳景芃zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Chen, Ching Perngen_US
dc.creator (作者) 陳景芃zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Chen, Ching Perngen_US
dc.date (日期) 2012en_US
dc.date.accessioned 1-Feb-2013 16:48:08 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 1-Feb-2013 16:48:08 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 1-Feb-2013 16:48:08 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0099555002en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/56804-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 語言學研究所zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 99555002zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 101zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 本篇論文分析光桿分類詞組[CL+N]在漢語的分佈位置。過去文獻中，學者們認為光桿分類詞組[CL+N]為不定數量詞組[yi+CL+N]的音韻弱化（Lu 1990, Chen 2004），且因為出現在主詞或主題的光桿分類詞組數量詞組[yi+CL+N]並不是不定語意，不定數量詞組音韻弱化的光桿分類詞組[CL+N]不得出現在這兩個位置(Cheng & Sybesma 1999/2005, Li 1998, Huang, Li & Li 2009)。在此前提下，可以得到兩個假設，第一，所有的不定數量詞組[yi+CL+N]都能弱化為光桿分類詞組[CL+N]。第二，所有的光桿分類詞組[CL+N]都只能在不定語意的位置出現。然而，在漢語裡，即使指涉數量的數量詞組[yi+CL+N]還是能弱化為光桿分類詞組[CL+N]，且並非所有的光桿分類詞組[CL+N]都出現在不定語意的位置。換句話說，過去文獻只能解釋而非預測光桿分類詞組[CL+N]在漢語中的分佈位置。
進一步檢視漢語裡光桿分類詞組[CL+N]的分佈位置，我認為指涉數量的數量詞組[yi+CL+N] 除了在比較語境，大多時候也能弱化為光桿分類詞組[CL+N]。另外，由於漢語裡的分類詞有許多附著語素的特徵，我認為應該將其分析為附著語素較為適當。從構詞的角度來看，漢語裡的分類詞需附著於前方的成分，不能單獨出現。句法上來說，漢語分類詞可以自由黏著在某幾詞類的宿主。音韻上，漢語的分類詞以最大音韻重量限制所選宿主。綜合以上幾點，我主張，限定或非限定的句法位置並非決定漢語光桿分類詞組[CL+N]出現的主要原因；決定漢語光桿分類詞組[CL+N]的出現因素應是分類詞是否能找到適當的宿主附著。有關合法宿主的制約條件，在我的論文裡也有詳細的討論。		zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) This thesis investigates the distribution of the bare classifier phrase [CL+N] in Mandarin Chinese. Previous studies argue that [CL+N] is the phonological reduction of the indefinite numeral classifier phrase [yi+CL+N] (Lu 1990, Chen 2004), and it cannot occur in subject or topic position because [yi+CL+N] in these positions are never considered indefinite (Cheng & Sybesma 1999/2005, Li 1998, Huang, Li & Li 2009).

Two predictions are made from these analyses. First, all indefinite [yi+CL+N] can be reduced to [CL+N], and second, [CL+N] only occurs in positions which are considered indefinite. However, it is easily found in Mandarin Chinese that numeral classifier phrase denoting quantity can also be reduced to bare classifier phrase [CL+N], and that not all [CL+N] occur in indefinite positions. In other words, previous studies simply explain the occurrence of [CL+N], but fail to predict the occurrence of [CL+N].

With a close examination, I suggest that numeral classifier phrase [yi+CL+N] denoting quantity can also be reduced to bare classifier phrase [CL+N] except occurring in contrastive contexts. Also, I adopt the clitic account on classifiers in Mandarin since they share many properties with clitics. Morphologically, classifiers in Mandarin never appear in isolation but attach to preceding elements. Syntactically, they are free to cliticize to hosts belonging to different categories but are not subject to syntactic roles. Phonologically, classifiers in Mandarin subcategorize their hosts within a maximal number of moras. Therefore, I argue that it is not (in)definiteness that decides the occurrence of the bare classifier [CL+N] but whether it can find a legal host to cliticize. Constraints concerning to the legal hosts will also be discuss in detail in my thesis.		en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents Acknowledgement...........................................IV
VITA......................................................VI
Chinese Abstract .......................................VIII
English Abstract..........................................X
List of Abbreviations.....................................XI
Table of Contents........................................XII

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION...............................................1
1.1 Motivation and Purpose....................................................2
1.2 Conventions of the data................................5
1.3 Organization of the thesis.............................7

CHAPTER 2. LITERATURE REVIEW...............................9
2.1 Definiteness and Specificity .........................11
2.1.1 Lyons (1999)....................................................11
2.1.2 Frawley (1992)......................................12
2.2 The interpretation and the distribution of the numeral classifier phrase [Num+CL+N] .............................14
2.2.1 Li (1998) and Huang, Li and Li (2009) ..............16
2.2.2 Cheng and Sybesma (1999)............................21
2.3 The interpretation and the distribution of the bare classifier phrase [CL+N]..................................22
2.3.1 Lu (1990) and Chen (2004)...........................22
2.3.2Cheng and Sybesma (1999).............................24
2.3.3 Yip (2008) .........................................28
2.4 Other analyses on the distribution of [Num+CL+N] and [CL+N] ...................................................31
2.4.1 Ji (2007)....................................................31
2.4.2 Yang (2002)..,......................................34
2.5 Remarks...............................................36

CHPATER 3. Unsolved Problems for [yi+CL+N] and [CL+N] in Mandarin Chinese..........................................39
3.1 Assumptions from previous studies.....................39
3.1.1 [CL+N] only occurs in indefinite positions?................................................40
3.1.2 All [CL+N] are allowed in indefinite positions? ....42
3.1.3 Other special contexts which block the occurrence of [CL+N]....................................................47
3.2 Distributions of [CL+N]: an overview..................51
3.2.1 Positions allowing the occurrence of [CL+N].........51
3.2.2 Positions disallowing the occurrence of [CL+N] .....54
3.3 Problems for adopting previous accounts...............55
3.3.1 Properties that deny previous accounts..............55
3.3.2 The selections on the phrase preceding [CL+N].......56
3.3.3 Classifiers cannot be too far away from the preceding verb .....................................................57
3.3.4 Phonological restrictions on the preceding element and [CL+N] itself.............................................58
3.3.5 Problems for adopting any syntactic approach alone..59

CHAPTER 4. A Clitic Account...............................61
4.1 Classifiers in Mandarin as clitics?...................61
4.1.1 Definitions and Properties of clitics...............62
4.1.2 Different types of clitics .........................64
4.2 A clitic account for classifiers in Mandarin Chinese..66
4.2.1 Properties shared by clitics and classifiers in Mandarin Chinese .........................................67
4.2.2 Subcategorizations of classifiers on their preceding elements .................................................69
4.3 Processes and principles involved in the clitic analysis of classifiers in Mandarin ...............................70
4.3.1 Classifiers in [CL+N] should be lexically governed by legal governors ..........................................70
4.3.2 The adjacency of classifiers in [CL+N] and the governors ................................................73
4.3.3 The unsolved problems in ditransitive clauses.......75
4.3.4 The phonological constraints on the hosts and the classifier ...............................................77
4.3.5 [CL+N] in distransitive structures..................81
4.3.6 Conclusion of this section..........................84
4.4 The remained unsolvable ..............................85
4.4.1 The prohibition of [CL+N] in contrastive contexts...86
4.4.2 The prohibition of disyllabic classifiers in [CL+N] structure ................................................88
4.5 The interpretation of ‘one’ in the bare classifier phrase [CL+N] ............................................92
4.5.1 The redundant 1 value of Chinese classifiers .......93
4.5.2 The redundant 1 value of numerals ..................96
4.6 Conclusion of the chapter ............................98

CHAPTER 5. CONCLUSION....................................100
REFERENCES ..............................................104		zh_TW
dc.language.iso en_US-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0099555002en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 漢語zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 分類詞zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 分類詞組zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 光桿zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Mandarinen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) classifieren_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) classifier phraseen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) bareen_US
dc.title (題名) 漢語光桿分類詞組之分析zh_TW
dc.title (題名) On the bare classifier phrase in Mandarin Chineseen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Adams, Karen. 1986. Numeral classifiers in Austroasiatic. Noun Classes and Categorization. ed. by C. Craig, 241-62. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Aikhenvald, Y. Alexandra. 2000. Classifiers: A typology of Noun Categorization Devices. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press.

Anderson, Stephen R. 2005. Aspects of the Theory of Clitics. Oxford University Press.

Bošković, Željko. 2000. Second position cliticisation: syntax and/or phonology? Clitic Phenomena in European Languages, ed. by F. Beukema and M. den Dikken. 71-119. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.

Chao, Yuen-Ren. 1968. A grammar of spoken Chinese. Berkely: University of California Press.

Chen, Ping. 2003. Indefinite determiner introducing definite referent: A special use of yi ‘one’ + classifier in Chinese. Lingua 113.12: 1169-1184.

Chen, Ping. 2004. Identifiability and definiteness in Chinese. Linguistics 42.6: 1129-1184

Cheng, Lisa and Rint Sybesma.1998. Yi-wan Tang, Yi-ge Tang: classifiers and massifiers. The Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies 28.3:385-412.

Cheng, Lisa and Rint Sybesma. 1999. Bare and not so-bare nouns and the structure of NP. Linguistic Inquiry 30.4:509-542.

Cheng, Lisa and Rint, Sybesma. 2005. Classifiers in four varieties of Chinese. The Oxford Handbook of Comparative Syntax. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Chomsky, Naom. 1995. The Minimalist Program. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

Duanmu, San. 2000. The Phonology of Standard Chinese. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Duanmu, San. 2001. Stress in Chinese. Chinese Phonology in Generative Grammar,ed. by De Bao Xu. 117-138. San Diego: Academic Press.

Frawley, William. 1992. Linguistic Semantics. Hillsdale, NJ, Hove & London: Lawrence Erlbaum.

Halpern, Aaron. 1995. On the Placement and Morphology of Clitics. Standford: CSLI Publications.

Harley, Heidi. 2003. Possession and the double object construction. Linguistic Variation Yearbook 2:31-70.

Heine, Bernd. 1997. Cognitive Foundations of Grammar. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Her, One-Soon and Chen-Tien Hsieh. 2010. On the semantic distinction between classifiers and measure words in Chinese. Language and Linguistics 10.2:357-419

----To appear. Distinguishing classifiers and measure words: A mathematical perspective and implications. To appear in Lingua.

Hsieh, Miao-Ling. 2008. The Internal Structure of Noun Phrases in Chinese. Taiwan

Journal of Linguistics: Book Series in Chinese Linguistics. No. 2. Taipei: Crane Publishing.

Huang, C.-T. James. 1982a. Move wh in a language without wh-movement. The Linguistics Review 1:369-416.

----1982b [1998]. Logical relations in Chinese and the theory of grammar. Doctoral dissertation, MIT; edited version published by Garland, New York, 1998.

----1987. Existential sentences in Chinese and (in)definiteness. The Representation of (In)definiteness, ed. by Eric Reuland and Alice ter Meulen, 226-253. Cambridge,Mass.: MIT Press.

Jakendoff, Ray. 1987. Consciousness and the Computational Mind. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Ji, Huimin. 2007. On the Syntax of Chinese Nominals. PhD Dissertation, the University of Georgia.

Klavans, Judith L. 1982. Some Problems in a Theory of Clitics. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club.
Klavans, Judith L. 1985. The independence of syntax and phonology in cliticization. Language 61:95-120.

Lakoff George. 1987. Women, Fire and Dangerous Things: What Categories Reveal about the Mind. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Li, Audrey. 1996. Definite and indefinite existential constructions. Studies in
Linguistics Sciences 26:175-191.

Li, Audrey. 1998. Argument determiner phrases and number phrases. Linguistic Inquiry
29:4, 693-702.

Li, Charles and Sandra Thompson. 1981. Mandarin Chinese: A Functional Reference Grammar. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Lin, Yen-Hwei. 2007. The Sounds of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.

Lu, Shuxiang 1990 [1944]. Ge zi de yingyong fanwei, fu lun danweici qian yi zi de
tuoluo[Scope of the uses of ge and omission of yi in front of classifiers]. Lu Shuxiang Wenji [Collected Works of Lu Shuxiang]. Vol. 2, 144-175. Beijing: Shangwu Yinshuguan.

1990 [1948]. ba zi yongfa de yanjiu [Studies in the uses of ba]. Lu Shuxiang Wenji.[Collected Works of Lu Shuxiang]. Vol. 2, 176-199. Beijing: Shangwu Yinshuguan.

Lyons, Christopher. 1999. Definiteness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Lyons, John. 1977. Semantics. 2vols. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Oehrle, Richard. T. 1976. The Grammatical Status of the English Dative Alternation. PhD Dissertation, MIT.

Roberts, Ian. 2010. Agreement and Movement. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.

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