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題名 國小字母拼讀法教學與其教學順序之研究
English Phonics Instruction and Its Teaching Sequence for Elementary School Students in Taiwan
作者 林美瑩
Lin, Mei Ying
貢獻者 林伯英
Lin, Bo Ying
林美瑩
Lin, Mei Ying
日期 2002
上傳時間 9-May-2016 16:10:29 (UTC+8)
摘要 　　本篇論文旨在提供適合台灣小學教育之字母拼讀法（phonics）教學及其教學順序。本研究依循兩個方向進行：其一、係著手研究三位英語學者(Flesch, 1955; Gattegno, 1976; Gunning 1996)對字母拼讀法教學及教學順序之意見；其二、係採問卷法，調查台北市國小英語教師所選用之教材、教學法、教學順序及困難等。研究結果顯示，我國學生適用「分析─合成式教學法」(implicit-explicit phonics instruction)來進行字母拼讀法教學，在教學順序上，則宜先區分「字母名稱」(letter name)、「字母形式」(letter form)及「字母語音」(letter sound)三個概念，在教完26個字母之名稱及形式後，再教字母形式與語音的相對應規則。字母語音的教學順序又以五個短母音(short vowel sound)為先，接著分別是子音(consonant sound)、子音二合字母(consonant digraph)、子音音群(consonant cluster)、長母音(long vowel sound)、母音二合字母(vowel digraph)及r母音(r vowel)。不規則發音之字，則以同音字群法(phonogram; word families)來教學。在開始教字母語音時，也同時教授「視覺字彙」(sight words)，藉此彌補許多常用之英文生字卻為不規則發音所產生的問題。
　　This study aims to provide suitable phonics instruction and teaching sequence for elementary school students in Taiwan. The study is conducted from two directions: First, views from three native English scholars (Flesch, 1955; Gattegno, 1976; Gunning 1996) are analyzed. Second, a questionnaire survey is conducted to elementary schools in Taipei city, to find out the most frequently used phonics materials, phonics instruction, teaching sequence, and its difficulties, etc. The results show that implicit-explicit phonics instruction can be used in phonics teaching. It is also necessary to distinguish the concepts among letter names, letter forms, and letter sounds. It is suggested that letter sounds should not be taught until the letter names and forms (the alphabet) are taught. The teaching sequence for letter sounds is short vowel sounds first, followed by consonant sounds, consonant digraphs, consonant clusters, long vowel sounds, vowel digraphs, and r vowels respectively. Irregular spellings can be taught last using phonograms (word families). Sight words should be taught with letter sounds to solve the problems caused by high-frequency words which do not follow phonics rules.
參考文獻 REFERENCES
     Adams, Marilyn Jager. 1990. Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
     Albert, Elaine. 1994. Phonics for Learning How to Read. U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 370078)
     Anthony, Edward M. 1963. “Approach, method and technique.” English Language Teaching, 17: 63-67.
     Aukerman, Robert C. 1984. Approaches to Beginning Reading, 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
     Baer, G. T. 1991. Self-paced Phonics: A Text for Education. NY: Macmillan.
     Chall, Jeanne S. 1967. Learning to Read: The Great Debate. NY: McGraw-Hill.
     ---. 1983. Learning to Read: The Great Debate, updated ed. NY: McGraw-Hill.
     Crystal, David. 1987. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     Cleary, L. M. & M. D. Linn. 1993. Linguistics for Teachers. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
     Durkin, Dolores. 1987. Teaching Young Children to Read, 4th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
     ---. 1993. Teaching Them to Read, 6th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
     Ehri, L. C. 1991. “Development of the Ability to Read Words.” Handbook of Reading Research, vol. II, eds. R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson, 383-417. NY: Longman.
     Flesch, Rudolf. 1955. Why Johnny Can``t Read: And What You Can Do About It. NY: Harper and Brothers.
     ---. 1981. Why Johnny Still Can’t Read: A New Look at the Scandal of Our Schools. NY: Harper and Brothers.
     Frazier, K., B. Hoskins, and R. Nakata. 1998. Let’s Go Starter. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1992. Let’s Go. Level One. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1993. Let’s Go. Level Two. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1994. Let’s Go. Level Three. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1995. Let’s Go. Level Four. HK: Oxford University Press.
     Frazier, K., B. Hoskins, and E. Kisslinger. 1996. Let’s Go. Level Five. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1996. Let’s Go. Level Six. HK: Oxford University Press.
     Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1993. An Introduction to Language, 5th ed. NY: Harcourt Brace College.
     Gattegno, C. 1962. Words in Color: Background and Principles. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Press.
     Gattegno, C. (1976). The Common Sense of Teaching Foreign Languages. (Yang Yu-wen, Trans.). New York: Educational Solutions. (Original work published 1976).
     Groff, P. 1986. “The Maturing of Phonics Instruction.” The Reading Teacher 39: 912-923.
     Gunning, Thomas G. 1992. Creating Reading Instruction for All Children, 1st ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
     ---. 1996. Creating Reading Instruction for All Children, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
     Hanna, P. R., R. E. Hodge, & J. S. Hanna. 1971. Spelling Structure and Strategies. Boston: Houghton Miffin.
     Hsu, Li-hsin. 許儷馨. 2000. A Study on Phonics and Phonetic Symbols in ELT. M.A. Thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
     Hull, Marion A. and Barbara J. Fox. 1998. Phonics for the Teacher of Reading, Programmed for Self-instruction, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill.
     Hung, Shu-kui. 洪淑貴. 1998. A Comparison of Two Methods: K. K. Phonetic Symbols and Phonics, in Teaching English to Children. M.A. Thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University.
     Kenstowicz, Micahel. 1994. Phonology in Generative Grammar. Ma: Blackwell.
     Kenyon, John Samuel and Thomas Albert Knott. 1953. A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. MASS: G. & C. Merriam Company.
     Lapp, Diane and James Flood. 1986. Teaching Students to Read. NY: Macmillan.
     ---. 1992. Teaching Reading to Every Child, 3rd ed. NY: Macmillan.
     Lewkowicz, N. K. 1980. “Phonemic Awareness Training: What to Teach and How to Teach It.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(5): 686-700.
     Long, Michael H., and Jack C. Richards, eds. 1987. Methodology in TESOL. Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle.
     Marchbanks, B., & Levin, H. 1965. “Cues by Which Children Recognize Words.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 56 (Sep.): 57-61.
     Mathews, Mitford M. 1967. Teaching to Read: Historically Considered. Chicago : University of Chicago Press.
     McCracken, Marlene J. and Robert A. McCracken. 1996. Spelling Through Phonics, 2nd ed. Canada: Peguis Publishers.
     Ministry of Education. 2001. The Ministry of Education 1999 Progress Report. On-line. Available: http://www.edu.tw/english/index.htm
     O`Grady, William Delaney, and Michael Dobrovolsky. 1996. Contemporary Linguistic Analysis: An Introduction, 3rd ed. Toronto: Copp Clark.
     Osborn, J., S. Stahl, and M. Stein. 1997. Teachers’ Guidelines for Evaluating Commercial Phonics Packages. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
     Richards, Jack C., John Platt, and Heidi Platt. 1992. Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics, 2nd ed. Singapore: Longman.
     Richards, Jack C., and Theodore S. Rodgers. 2001. Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching, 2nd ed. NY: Cambridge.
     Riedler, Carole R. 1962. A Content Analysis of Reviews of Rudolf Flesch’s Book: Why Johnny Can’t Read. Unpublished graduate research seminar paper, The School of Education, The City College, The City University of New York.
     Share, David L. 1995. “Phonological Recoding and Self-teaching: Sine Qua Non of Reading Acquisition.” Cognition, 55(2):151-218.
     Stahl, S. A. Osborne, J., and F. Lehr. 1990. Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print: A Summary. Urbana, IL: Center for the Study of Reading, University of Illinois at Urbana Champaign.
     Sun, Cecilia Shu-huei. 孫淑惠. 1991. American English Phonetics, 2nd ed. Taipei: Crane Publishing.
     Wagstaff, Janiel M. 1994. Phonics That Work!: New Strategies for the Reading/Writing Classroom. NY: Scholastic.
     Wolfram, W. and R. Johnson. 1982. Phonological Analysis: Focus on American English. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
     台北市國民小學英語科教學資料庫 (Taipei English education)。2001。課程綱要─高年級閱讀教學目標 [線上資料]。取自: http://www.laes.tp.edu.tw/en/
     林至誠 (Lin, Zhi-cheng)。1999。〈字母之後、拼音之前：談字母拼讀之前置練習〉。《英語教學》。23(3): 15-22。臺北：英語教學雜誌社
     施玉惠（Shih, Yu-hui）主編。2001。《國民中小學英語教學活動設計及評量指引》。台北：教育部員工消費合作社。
     孫蕙文 (Sun, Hui-wen)。2000。《英語科phonics教材選用規準與實際應用成效之研究》。國立台南師範學院國民教育研究所碩士論文。
     郭鳳蘭（Kuo, Feng-lan）。2000。〈Phonics教學成效之探討〉。《第九屆中華民國英語文教學國際研討會論文集》。606-615。台北：文鶴。
     教育部 (Ministry of Education)。2001。國民中小學九年一貫課程綱要─語文領域 [線上資料]。取自: http://teach.eje.edu.tw/E-rule/E-main-frame.htm
     陳新雄，竺家寧，姚榮松，羅肇錦，孔仲溫，吳聖雄 編。1989。《語言學辭典》。台北：三民。
     黃自來（Huang, Zi-lai）。1999。《英語詞彙形音義三合一教學法》。台北：文鶴。
     ---。1992。《理論與應用語言學英漢辭典》。台北：文鶴。
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
語言學研究所
87555006
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#A2010000142
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 林伯英zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Lin, Bo Yingen_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 林美瑩zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Lin, Mei Yingen_US
dc.creator (作者) 林美瑩zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Lin, Mei Yingen_US
dc.date (日期) 2002en_US
dc.date.accessioned 9-May-2016 16:10:29 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 9-May-2016 16:10:29 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 9-May-2016 16:10:29 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) A2010000142en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/95395-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 語言學研究所zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 87555006zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 　　本篇論文旨在提供適合台灣小學教育之字母拼讀法（phonics）教學及其教學順序。本研究依循兩個方向進行：其一、係著手研究三位英語學者(Flesch, 1955; Gattegno, 1976; Gunning 1996)對字母拼讀法教學及教學順序之意見；其二、係採問卷法，調查台北市國小英語教師所選用之教材、教學法、教學順序及困難等。研究結果顯示，我國學生適用「分析─合成式教學法」(implicit-explicit phonics instruction)來進行字母拼讀法教學，在教學順序上，則宜先區分「字母名稱」(letter name)、「字母形式」(letter form)及「字母語音」(letter sound)三個概念，在教完26個字母之名稱及形式後，再教字母形式與語音的相對應規則。字母語音的教學順序又以五個短母音(short vowel sound)為先，接著分別是子音(consonant sound)、子音二合字母(consonant digraph)、子音音群(consonant cluster)、長母音(long vowel sound)、母音二合字母(vowel digraph)及r母音(r vowel)。不規則發音之字，則以同音字群法(phonogram; word families)來教學。在開始教字母語音時，也同時教授「視覺字彙」(sight words)，藉此彌補許多常用之英文生字卻為不規則發音所產生的問題。zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 　　This study aims to provide suitable phonics instruction and teaching sequence for elementary school students in Taiwan. The study is conducted from two directions: First, views from three native English scholars (Flesch, 1955; Gattegno, 1976; Gunning 1996) are analyzed. Second, a questionnaire survey is conducted to elementary schools in Taipei city, to find out the most frequently used phonics materials, phonics instruction, teaching sequence, and its difficulties, etc. The results show that implicit-explicit phonics instruction can be used in phonics teaching. It is also necessary to distinguish the concepts among letter names, letter forms, and letter sounds. It is suggested that letter sounds should not be taught until the letter names and forms (the alphabet) are taught. The teaching sequence for letter sounds is short vowel sounds first, followed by consonant sounds, consonant digraphs, consonant clusters, long vowel sounds, vowel digraphs, and r vowels respectively. Irregular spellings can be taught last using phonograms (word families). Sight words should be taught with letter sounds to solve the problems caused by high-frequency words which do not follow phonics rules.en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents Acknowledgements-----iv
     TABLE OF CONTENTS-----vi
     LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES-----ix
     CHINESE ABSTRACT-----xi
     ENGLISH ABSTRACT-----xii
     CHAPTER
     I.INTRODUCTION-----1
     　　1.1 Motivation and Purpose-----1
     　　1.2 Research Questions-----3
     　　1.3 Significance of the Study-----3
     　　1.4 Definition of Terms-----4
     II.LITERATURE REVIEW-----11
     　　2.1 Historical Development of Phonics Teaching in the United States-----11
     　　2.2 Roles of Phonics in Taiwan─EFL Language Learning-----17
     　　2.3 Phonics Instruction-----9
     　　　　2.3.1 Implicit Phonics Instruction-----19
     　　　　2.3.2 Explicit Phonics Instruction-----20
     　　　　2.3.3 Implicit-Explicit Phonics Instruction-----21
     　　2.4 Research Concerning Phonics Instruction and Its Teaching Sequence-----22
     III.METHODS AND PROCEDURES-----25
     　　3.1 Selection of Related Research-----25
     　　3.2 Design of Questionnaire-----26
     　　3.3 Distribution and Collection of Questionnaire-----27
     IV.RESULTS OF RELATED RESEARCH ON PHONICS AND DICSUSSIONS-----29
     　　4.1 Flesch (1955)-----29
     　　　　4.1.1 Phonics Instruction-----29
     　　　　4.1.2 Teaching Sequence-----29
     　　　　4.1.3 Discussion-----35
     　　4.2 Gattegno (1976)-----37
     　　　　4.2.1 Phonics Instruction-----37
     　　　　4.2.2 Teaching Sequence-----38
     　　　　4.2.3 Discussion-----43
     　　4.3 Gunning (1996)-----46
     　　　　4.3.1 Phonics Instruction-----46
     　　　　4.3.2 Teaching Sequence-----47
     　　　　4.3.3 Discussion-----51
     V.RESULTS OF QUESTIONNAIRE SURVEY AND DISCUSSIONS-----53
     　　5.1 Phonics Materials-----53
     　　　　5.1.1 Materials Used in the Present-----53
     　　　　5.1.2 Materials Used in the Past-----54
     　　　　5.1.3 Whether Currently-used Materials Include Phonics Section(s)-----54
      5.1.4 Discussion-----55
     　　　　　　5.1.4.1 Phonics Instruction in Let’s Go-----56
     　　　　　　5.1.4.2 Teaching Sequence in Let’s Go-----57
     　　　　　　5.1.4.3 Discussion on Let’s Go-----60
     　　5.2 Phonics Teaching-----62
     　　　　5.2.1 Number of Teaching Periods Per Week-----63
     　　　　5.2.2 Teaching Sequence Displayed in the Materials-----64
     　　　　5.2.3 Degree of Satisfaction towards Materials-----66
     　　　　5.2.4 Type of Phonics Instruction-----67
     　　　　5.2.5 Influence of Phonics Teaching to the Students-----70
     　　　　5.2.6 Views on the Teaching of K.K. Phonetic Symbols and Phonics-----72
     　　　　5.2.7 Difficulties in Teaching Phonics-----73
     　　　　5.2.8 Discussion-----75
     VI.PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS-----77
     　　6.1 Findings-----77
     　　　　6.1.1 Results of Related Research-----77
     　　　　6.1.2 Results of Questionnaire Survey-----78
     　　　　　　6.1.2.1 Material Selection-----78
     　　　　　　6.1.2.2 Phonics Instruction and Teaching Sequence-----79
     　　6.2 Pedagogical Implications-----80
     　　　　6.2.1 Suggested Phonics Instruction-----80
     　　　　6.2.2 A Modified Procedure of Gunning’s Implicit-Explicit Phonics Instruction-----81
     　　　　6.2.3 Suggested Phonics Teaching Sequence-----83
     　　6.3 Conclusions-----91
     　　6.4 Limitations and Further Research-----92
     REFERENCES-----94
     APPENDIX-----101
     
     LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
     Table 4.1　Flesch`s Teaching Sequence-----31
     Table 4.2　Chart One of Words in Color-----39
     Table 4.3　Gunning`s Teaching Sequence-----49
     Table 5.1　Materials Used in the Present-----54
     Table 5.2　Materials Used in the Past-----54
     Table 5.3　Whether Currently-used Materials Include Phonics Section(s)-----55
     Table 5.4　Short Vowels and Initial Consonants Displayed in Let s Go Starter-----58
     Table 5.5　Number of Teaching Periods Per week-----63
     Table 5.6　Minutes Spent Each Time-----64
     Table 5.7　Teaching Sequence Displayed in the Materials-----65
     Table 5.8　Degree of Satisfaction towards Materials-----67
     Table 5.9　Types of Phonics Instruction-----69
     Table 5.10　Influence of Phonics Teaching to the Students-----71
     Table 5.11　Views on Whether K.K. Phonetic Symbols and Phonics Can Be Taught at the Same Time-----72
     Table 5.12　Difficulties in Teaching Phonics-----74
     Table 6.1　Phonics Instruction and Teaching Sequence by Flesch (1955), Gattegno (1976), and Gunning (1996)-----78
     Table 6.2　Phonics Instruction and Teaching Sequence Used in Let`s Go-----79
     Table 6.3　Phoneme-grapheme Correspondences-----87
     Table 6.4　Irregular Spellings Taught by Phonogram-----90
     Figure 1.1　Schema for Letter Name, Letter Form, Letter Sound, Phoneme, and Grapheme-----7
     Figure 3.1　Research Procedures-----28
     Figure 4.1　Skeleton of Flesch`s Teaching Sequence Drawn by the Researcher-----34
     Figure 4.2　Skeleton of the Teaching Sequence in the Silent Way Drawn by the Researcher-----42
     Figure 4.3　Skeleton of Gunning`s Teaching Sequence Drawn by the Researcher-----50
     Figure 6.1　Skeleton of Suggested Teaching Sequence-----86		zh_TW
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#A2010000142en_US
dc.title (題名) 國小字母拼讀法教學與其教學順序之研究zh_TW
dc.title (題名) English Phonics Instruction and Its Teaching Sequence for Elementary School Students in Taiwanen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen_US
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) REFERENCES
     Adams, Marilyn Jager. 1990. Beginning to Read: Thinking and Learning about Print. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.
     Albert, Elaine. 1994. Phonics for Learning How to Read. U.S. Dept. of Education Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI). (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 370078)
     Anthony, Edward M. 1963. “Approach, method and technique.” English Language Teaching, 17: 63-67.
     Aukerman, Robert C. 1984. Approaches to Beginning Reading, 2nd ed. NY: John Wiley & Sons.
     Baer, G. T. 1991. Self-paced Phonics: A Text for Education. NY: Macmillan.
     Chall, Jeanne S. 1967. Learning to Read: The Great Debate. NY: McGraw-Hill.
     ---. 1983. Learning to Read: The Great Debate, updated ed. NY: McGraw-Hill.
     Crystal, David. 1987. The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
     Cleary, L. M. & M. D. Linn. 1993. Linguistics for Teachers. Singapore: McGraw-Hill.
     Durkin, Dolores. 1987. Teaching Young Children to Read, 4th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
     ---. 1993. Teaching Them to Read, 6th ed. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
     Ehri, L. C. 1991. “Development of the Ability to Read Words.” Handbook of Reading Research, vol. II, eds. R. Barr, M. L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, & P. D. Pearson, 383-417. NY: Longman.
     Flesch, Rudolf. 1955. Why Johnny Can``t Read: And What You Can Do About It. NY: Harper and Brothers.
     ---. 1981. Why Johnny Still Can’t Read: A New Look at the Scandal of Our Schools. NY: Harper and Brothers.
     Frazier, K., B. Hoskins, and R. Nakata. 1998. Let’s Go Starter. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1992. Let’s Go. Level One. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1993. Let’s Go. Level Two. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1994. Let’s Go. Level Three. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1995. Let’s Go. Level Four. HK: Oxford University Press.
     Frazier, K., B. Hoskins, and E. Kisslinger. 1996. Let’s Go. Level Five. HK: Oxford University Press.
     ---. 1996. Let’s Go. Level Six. HK: Oxford University Press.
     Fromkin, Victoria and Robert Rodman. 1993. An Introduction to Language, 5th ed. NY: Harcourt Brace College.
     Gattegno, C. 1962. Words in Color: Background and Principles. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Britannica Press.
     Gattegno, C. (1976). The Common Sense of Teaching Foreign Languages. (Yang Yu-wen, Trans.). New York: Educational Solutions. (Original work published 1976).
     Groff, P. 1986. “The Maturing of Phonics Instruction.” The Reading Teacher 39: 912-923.
     Gunning, Thomas G. 1992. Creating Reading Instruction for All Children, 1st ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
     ---. 1996. Creating Reading Instruction for All Children, 2nd ed. Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
     Hanna, P. R., R. E. Hodge, & J. S. Hanna. 1971. Spelling Structure and Strategies. Boston: Houghton Miffin.
     Hsu, Li-hsin. 許儷馨. 2000. A Study on Phonics and Phonetic Symbols in ELT. M.A. Thesis, National Taiwan Normal University.
     Hull, Marion A. and Barbara J. Fox. 1998. Phonics for the Teacher of Reading, Programmed for Self-instruction, 7th ed. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Merrill.
     Hung, Shu-kui. 洪淑貴. 1998. A Comparison of Two Methods: K. K. Phonetic Symbols and Phonics, in Teaching English to Children. M.A. Thesis, National Kaohsiung Normal University.
     Kenstowicz, Micahel. 1994. Phonology in Generative Grammar. Ma: Blackwell.
     Kenyon, John Samuel and Thomas Albert Knott. 1953. A Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. MASS: G. & C. Merriam Company.
     Lapp, Diane and James Flood. 1986. Teaching Students to Read. NY: Macmillan.
     ---. 1992. Teaching Reading to Every Child, 3rd ed. NY: Macmillan.
     Lewkowicz, N. K. 1980. “Phonemic Awareness Training: What to Teach and How to Teach It.” Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(5): 686-700.
     Long, Michael H., and Jack C. Richards, eds. 1987. Methodology in TESOL. Massachusetts: Heinle & Heinle.
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