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題名 一位台灣青年英語學習者的社群意識與學習自主之形成：個案比較正規與非正規英語課室經驗
Formation of a Taiwanese Young Adult’s Sense of Community and Learner Agency: A Case Study on the Comparison of Formal and Non-formal English Classroom Experiences
作者 王世銓
Wang, Shih-Chuan
貢獻者 招靜琪
Chao, Chin-Chi
王世銓
Wang, Shih-Chuan
關鍵詞 社群意識
學習者自主
正規教育
非正規教育
sense of community (SOC)
learner agency
formal education
non-formal education
日期 2020
上傳時間 1-Jul-2020 13:29:25 (UTC+8)
摘要 在東亞地區以英語為外語的環境中，非正規教育的存在已不容忽視。過去雖已有研究探討非正規教育之於正規教育的「影子教育」特性，在英語教學的領域中，仍少有研究從質性角度探討學習者在兩種教育環境中的學習經驗。因此，本研究透過McMillan and Chavis (1986) 的社群意識（SOC）理論及Larsen-Freeman (2019) 的複雜動態系統理論（CDST），首先探討一位台灣青年英語學習者在正規與非正規教育環境中社群意識的形成。接著，本研究進而探詢這些社群意識如何與他的英語學習者自主互動。資料來自兩階段的訪談，並採Carspecken (1996) 的再建構分析法進行分析。 研究結果顯示，從小學到高中階段，社群意識與學習者自主都呈現遞減的趨勢。然而，與學習者互動的老師及同學、背後的文化因子（如文憑主義），及學習者本身的學習環境（如私立學校）都有可能使社群意識與學習者自主呈現不同的風貌。本研究不僅分析理論架構中的元素如何互動，也透過此個案發現了兩個理論框架相關聯與互動的可能。此外，本文也針對正規與非正規教育的三種不同關係（互補、補充與平行）進行討論。在教學上，本研究建議為提升英語教室中學習者自主，透過更多實際使用英語的機會與更多同儕互動來建構英語學習的社群意識將帶來實質的幫助。
In EFL contexts such as those in East Asia, the presence of non-formal education (e.g., English private tutoring, or EPT) cannot be ignored. Prior studies have demonstrated the shadowing nature of non-formal education to formal education (e.g., mainstream schooling). However, in the field of TESOL, qualitative studies on learning experiences in both formal and non-formal educational contexts remain insufficient. Therefore, drawing on McMillan and Chavis’s (1986) framework of a sense of community (SOC) and Larsen-Freeman’s (2019) Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) of learner agency, this study first examines the SOCs of a Taiwanese young adult in both formal and non-formal English learning contexts. Then, the study explores how the SOCs interact and shape the learner’s English learner agency. Data were collected from two phases of interviews and were analyzed by reconstructive analysis (Carspecken, 1996). Results showed that from the elementary school period to the senior high school period, while the trend of a diminishing SOC and learner agency was evident, the formation of SOCs and learner agency remained complex according to how the learner interacted with teachers or peers, and how cultural backgrounds (i.e., credentialism) or studying contexts (i.e., private schools) may have had an underlying impact. Theoretically, such findings not only explained how the framework and their respective elements work but highlighted how the two theories can mutually relate to each other. Moreover, three kinds of dynamic relations (i.e., complementary, supplementary, and parallel) between formal and non-formal education were also depicted through analyzing the learner’s experience. Pedagogically, this study suggests that to enhance learner agency in classrooms, the creation of English learning SOCs through more English-use and peer engagement could be helpful.
參考文獻 Ahearn, L. M. (2001). Language and agency. Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, 109–137.
Block, D. (2008). EFL narratives and English-mediated identities: Two ships passing in the night? In P. Kalaja, V. Menezes & A. M. F. Barcelos (Eds.), Narratives of learning and teaching EFL (pp. 141–154). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bray, M. (1999). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners. Paris: UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning.
Bray, M. (2009). Confronting the shadow education system: What government policies for what private tutoring. Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
Bray, M. (2013). Shadow education: Comparative perspectives on the expansion and implications of private supplementary tutoring. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 77, 412–420.
Bray, M., & Lykins. C. (2012). Shadow Education: Private Tutoring and its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia. Asian Development Bank.
Brown, J. (2009). Self-Regulatory Strategies and Agency in Self-Instructed Language Learning: A Situated View. The Modern Language Journal, 93(4), 570–583.
Buhrman, T., & Di Paolo, E. (2017). The sense of agency—A phenomenological consequence of enacting sensorimotor schemes. Phenomenological Cognitive Science, 16, 207–236.
Carspecken, P. F. (1996). Critical ethnography in educational research: A theoretical and practical guide. New York: Routledge.
Chen, I. W. L., & Hsieh, J. J. C. (2011). English language in Taiwan: An examination of its use in society and education in schools. In A. Feng (Ed.), English language education across Greater China (pp. 70–94). New York: Multilingual Matters.
Chen, S., & Tsai, Y. (2012). Research on English teaching and learning: Taiwan (2004-2009). Language Teaching, 45(2), 180–201.
Dawson, W. (2010). Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: Reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 14–24.
de Silva, W. A., Gunawardane, C., Jayaweera, S., Perera, L., Rupasinghe, S. and Wijetunge, S. (1991). Extra School Instruction, Social Equity and Educational Quality. Singapore: International Development Research Centre.
de Silva, W. A. (1994). Extra-school tutoring in the Asian context with special reference to Sri Lanka. Maharagama: Department of Educational Research, National Institute of Education.
Douglas Fir Group. (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual world. Modern Language Journal, 100 (Supplement 2016), 19–47.
Duff, P. (2014). Case study research on language learning and use. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 34, 1–23.
Duranti, A. (2004). Agency in Language (pp. 451–473). In A. Duranti (Ed.) A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Ellis, L. (2002). Teaching from experience: A new perspective on the non-native teacher in adult ESL. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 25(1), 71–107.
Emirbayer, M., & Mische, A. (1998). What is agency? American Journal of Sociology, 103, 962–1023.
Fergany, N. (1994). Survey of access to primary education and acquisition of basic literacy skills in three governorates in Egypt. Cairo: UNICEF; Almishkat Centre for Research and Training.
Flyvbjerg, B. (2004). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. F. Gubrium & D. Silverman (Eds.), Qualitative research practice (pp. 390–404). London: Sage.
Gao, X. (2010). Strategic language learning: The roles of agency and context. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Huang, H. T. (2017). Private English tutoring and adolescents’ motivation to learn English as a foreign language: A self system perspective. Taiwan Journal of TESOL, 14(1), 1–36.
Hussein, M. G. A. (1987). Private tutoring: A hidden educational problem. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 18(1), 91–96.
International standard classification of education: ISCED 2011. (2012). Montreal, Quebec: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
Jheng, Y. J. (2015). The influence of private tutoring on middle-class students’ use of in-class time in formal schools in Taiwan. International Journal of Educational Development, 40, 1–8.
Kachru, B. (1992). Teaching world Englishes. In B. Kachru (Ed.), The other tongue: English across cultures (pp. 355–366). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Kanno, Y., & Harklau, L. (2012). Linguistic minority students go to college. London, UK: Routledge.
Kwo, O., & Bray, M. (2014). Understanding the nexus between mainstream schooling and private supplementary tutoring: Patterns and voices of Hong Kong secondary students. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4), 403–416.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2012). Complex, dynamic systems: A new transdisciplinary theme for applied linguistics? Language Teaching, 45(2), 202–214.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2015). Saying what we mean: Making a case for ‘language acquisition’ to become ‘language development.’ Language Teaching, 48, 491–505.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2019). On Language Learner Agency: A Complex Dynamic Systems Theory Perspective. Modern Language Journal, 103(1), 61–79.
Lasagabaster, D. & Sierra, J. M. (Eds.) (2001). Language Awareness in the Foreign Language Classroom. Zarautz: Universidad del País Vasco - Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea.
Lee, B. (2010). The pre-university English-educational background of college freshmen in a foreign language program: A tale of diverse private education and English proficiency. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 69–82.
Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Liu, J. (2012). Does cram schooling matter? Who goes to cram schools? Evidence from Taiwan. International Journal of Educational Development, 32(1), 46–52.
Liu, P. K. (1998). Private tuition for primary students in Hong Kong. B. Ed. (Primary) project report. Hong Kong: University of Hong Kong.
Ma, L. P. F. (2012a). Advantages and disadvantages of native‐and nonnative‐English‐speaking teachers: Student perceptions in Hong Kong. TESOL Quarterly, 46(2), 280–305.
Marimuthu, T., J. S. Singh, K. Ahmad, H. K. Lim, H. Mukherjee, S. Oman, T. Chelliah, J. R. Sharma, N. M. Salleh, L. Yong, L. T. Leong, S. Sukarman, L. K. Thong, and W. Jamaluddin. (1991). Extra-school Instruction, Social Equity and Educational Quality. Report prepared for the International Development Research Centre, Singapore.
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描述 碩士
國立政治大學
英國語文學系
106551013
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0106551013
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 招靜琪zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Chao, Chin-Chien_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 王世銓zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Wang, Shih-Chuanen_US
dc.creator (作者) 王世銓zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Wang, Shih-Chuanen_US
dc.date (日期) 2020en_US
dc.date.accessioned 1-Jul-2020 13:29:25 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 1-Jul-2020 13:29:25 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 1-Jul-2020 13:29:25 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0106551013en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) http://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/130482-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 英國語文學系zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 106551013zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 在東亞地區以英語為外語的環境中，非正規教育的存在已不容忽視。過去雖已有研究探討非正規教育之於正規教育的「影子教育」特性，在英語教學的領域中，仍少有研究從質性角度探討學習者在兩種教育環境中的學習經驗。因此，本研究透過McMillan and Chavis (1986) 的社群意識（SOC）理論及Larsen-Freeman (2019) 的複雜動態系統理論（CDST），首先探討一位台灣青年英語學習者在正規與非正規教育環境中社群意識的形成。接著，本研究進而探詢這些社群意識如何與他的英語學習者自主互動。資料來自兩階段的訪談，並採Carspecken (1996) 的再建構分析法進行分析。 研究結果顯示，從小學到高中階段，社群意識與學習者自主都呈現遞減的趨勢。然而，與學習者互動的老師及同學、背後的文化因子（如文憑主義），及學習者本身的學習環境（如私立學校）都有可能使社群意識與學習者自主呈現不同的風貌。本研究不僅分析理論架構中的元素如何互動，也透過此個案發現了兩個理論框架相關聯與互動的可能。此外，本文也針對正規與非正規教育的三種不同關係（互補、補充與平行）進行討論。在教學上，本研究建議為提升英語教室中學習者自主，透過更多實際使用英語的機會與更多同儕互動來建構英語學習的社群意識將帶來實質的幫助。zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) In EFL contexts such as those in East Asia, the presence of non-formal education (e.g., English private tutoring, or EPT) cannot be ignored. Prior studies have demonstrated the shadowing nature of non-formal education to formal education (e.g., mainstream schooling). However, in the field of TESOL, qualitative studies on learning experiences in both formal and non-formal educational contexts remain insufficient. Therefore, drawing on McMillan and Chavis’s (1986) framework of a sense of community (SOC) and Larsen-Freeman’s (2019) Complex Dynamic Systems Theory (CDST) of learner agency, this study first examines the SOCs of a Taiwanese young adult in both formal and non-formal English learning contexts. Then, the study explores how the SOCs interact and shape the learner’s English learner agency. Data were collected from two phases of interviews and were analyzed by reconstructive analysis (Carspecken, 1996). Results showed that from the elementary school period to the senior high school period, while the trend of a diminishing SOC and learner agency was evident, the formation of SOCs and learner agency remained complex according to how the learner interacted with teachers or peers, and how cultural backgrounds (i.e., credentialism) or studying contexts (i.e., private schools) may have had an underlying impact. Theoretically, such findings not only explained how the framework and their respective elements work but highlighted how the two theories can mutually relate to each other. Moreover, three kinds of dynamic relations (i.e., complementary, supplementary, and parallel) between formal and non-formal education were also depicted through analyzing the learner’s experience. Pedagogically, this study suggests that to enhance learner agency in classrooms, the creation of English learning SOCs through more English-use and peer engagement could be helpful.en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iv
CHINESE ABSTRACT ix
ABSTRACT x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 5
The Relationship between Formal and Non-formal Education 5
English Formal and Non-formal Education in Taiwan 6
Sense of Community (SOC) 8
Learner Agency 10
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY 13
Research Design 13
Participant 13
Data Collection 15
The first phase. 16
The second phase. 17
Data Analysis 17
Trustworthiness 19
Credibility. 19
Transferability. 20
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS 21
English Learning Experience in the Elementary School Period 21
In formal education. 21
In non-formal education. 24
Preliminary Sectional Interpretation of the Elementary School Period 26
Sense of community. 26
Learner agency. 28
English Learning Experience in the Junior High School Period 30
In formal education. 30
In non-formal education. 34
Preliminary Sectional Interpretation of the Junior High School Period 36
Sense of community. 36
Learner agency. 39
English Learning Experience in the Senior High School Period 42
In formal education. 42
In non-formal education. 45
Preliminary Sectional Interpretation of the Senior High School Period 47
Sense of community. 47
Learner agency. 49
Lai’s Final Remarks on his English Learning Journey 51
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION AND IMPLICATIONS 53
Cross-sectional Analysis 53
I teach, therefore you learn: Unidirectional lecturing seems to dominate the English learning journey. 53
Play hard, then work hard: English slowly fades out in English class as credentialism fades in. 55
Studying knows no limit: The multiple relationships of formal and non-formal education revealed. 58
Together we can learn so much: SOCs do interact and shape learner’s agency. 63
Theoretical Implications 64
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION 67
Summary of Findings 67
Pedagogical Suggestions 68
Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research 69
REFERENCES 71
APPENDIX A: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL (THE FIRST PHASE) 77
APPENDIX B: INTERVIEW PROTOCOL (THE SECOND PHASE) 83		zh_TW
dc.format.extent 1646296 bytes-
dc.format.mimetype application/pdf-
dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0106551013en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 社群意識zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 學習者自主zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 正規教育zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 非正規教育zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) sense of community (SOC)en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) learner agencyen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) formal educationen_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) non-formal educationen_US
dc.title (題名) 一位台灣青年英語學習者的社群意識與學習自主之形成：個案比較正規與非正規英語課室經驗zh_TW
dc.title (題名) Formation of a Taiwanese Young Adult’s Sense of Community and Learner Agency: A Case Study on the Comparison of Formal and Non-formal English Classroom Experiencesen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen_US
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Ahearn, L. M. (2001). Language and agency. Annual Review of Anthropology, 30, 109–137.
Block, D. (2008). EFL narratives and English-mediated identities: Two ships passing in the night? In P. Kalaja, V. Menezes & A. M. F. Barcelos (Eds.), Narratives of learning and teaching EFL (pp. 141–154). Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
Bray, M. (1999). The shadow education system: Private tutoring and its implications for planners. Paris: UNESCO: International Institute for Educational Planning.
Bray, M. (2009). Confronting the shadow education system: What government policies for what private tutoring. Paris: UNESCO International Institute for Educational Planning (IIEP).
Bray, M. (2013). Shadow education: Comparative perspectives on the expansion and implications of private supplementary tutoring. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 77, 412–420.
Bray, M., & Lykins. C. (2012). Shadow Education: Private Tutoring and its Implications for Policy Makers in Asia. Asian Development Bank.
Brown, J. (2009). Self-Regulatory Strategies and Agency in Self-Instructed Language Learning: A Situated View. The Modern Language Journal, 93(4), 570–583.
Buhrman, T., & Di Paolo, E. (2017). The sense of agency—A phenomenological consequence of enacting sensorimotor schemes. Phenomenological Cognitive Science, 16, 207–236.
Carspecken, P. F. (1996). Critical ethnography in educational research: A theoretical and practical guide. New York: Routledge.
Chen, I. W. L., & Hsieh, J. J. C. (2011). English language in Taiwan: An examination of its use in society and education in schools. In A. Feng (Ed.), English language education across Greater China (pp. 70–94). New York: Multilingual Matters.
Chen, S., & Tsai, Y. (2012). Research on English teaching and learning: Taiwan (2004-2009). Language Teaching, 45(2), 180–201.
Dawson, W. (2010). Private tutoring and mass schooling in East Asia: Reflections of inequality in Japan, South Korea, and Cambodia. Asia Pacific Education Review, 11(1), 14–24.
de Silva, W. A., Gunawardane, C., Jayaweera, S., Perera, L., Rupasinghe, S. and Wijetunge, S. (1991). Extra School Instruction, Social Equity and Educational Quality. Singapore: International Development Research Centre.
de Silva, W. A. (1994). Extra-school tutoring in the Asian context with special reference to Sri Lanka. Maharagama: Department of Educational Research, National Institute of Education.
Douglas Fir Group. (2016). A transdisciplinary framework for SLA in a multilingual world. Modern Language Journal, 100 (Supplement 2016), 19–47.
Duff, P. (2014). Case study research on language learning and use. Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 34, 1–23.
Duranti, A. (2004). Agency in Language (pp. 451–473). In A. Duranti (Ed.) A Companion to Linguistic Anthropology. Malden, MA: Blackwell.
Ellis, L. (2002). Teaching from experience: A new perspective on the non-native teacher in adult ESL. Australian Review of Applied Linguistics, 25(1), 71–107.
Emirbayer, M., & Mische, A. (1998). What is agency? American Journal of Sociology, 103, 962–1023.
Fergany, N. (1994). Survey of access to primary education and acquisition of basic literacy skills in three governorates in Egypt. Cairo: UNICEF; Almishkat Centre for Research and Training.
Flyvbjerg, B. (2004). Five misunderstandings about case-study research. In C. Seale, G. Gobo, J. F. Gubrium & D. Silverman (Eds.), Qualitative research practice (pp. 390–404). London: Sage.
Gao, X. (2010). Strategic language learning: The roles of agency and context. Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Huang, H. T. (2017). Private English tutoring and adolescents’ motivation to learn English as a foreign language: A self system perspective. Taiwan Journal of TESOL, 14(1), 1–36.
Hussein, M. G. A. (1987). Private tutoring: A hidden educational problem. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 18(1), 91–96.
International standard classification of education: ISCED 2011. (2012). Montreal, Quebec: UNESCO Institute for Statistics.
Jheng, Y. J. (2015). The influence of private tutoring on middle-class students’ use of in-class time in formal schools in Taiwan. International Journal of Educational Development, 40, 1–8.
Kachru, B. (1992). Teaching world Englishes. In B. Kachru (Ed.), The other tongue: English across cultures (pp. 355–366). Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.
Kanno, Y., & Harklau, L. (2012). Linguistic minority students go to college. London, UK: Routledge.
Kwo, O., & Bray, M. (2014). Understanding the nexus between mainstream schooling and private supplementary tutoring: Patterns and voices of Hong Kong secondary students. Asia Pacific Journal of Education, 34(4), 403–416.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (2012). Complex, dynamic systems: A new transdisciplinary theme for applied linguistics? Language Teaching, 45(2), 202–214.
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dc.identifier.doi (DOI) 10.6814/NCCU202000549en_US