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題名 外語教室中外國教師調整語之探討
An Investigation of Foreigner Talk in EFL Classroom
作者 孫于絜
Sun,Yu-chieh
貢獻者 黃麗儀
Huang, Li-yi
孫于絜
Sun,Yu-chieh
關鍵詞 調整語
教師語言
教室篇章分析
Foreigner Talk
Teacher Talk
Classroom Discourse
日期 2006
上傳時間 17-Sep-2009 16:27:53 (UTC+8)
摘要 當母語者與非母語者在進行溝通時，母語者通常會使用較為簡化的語言形式，此種語言形式研究者稱之為「調整語」。本文旨在探討在台灣的成人美語教室中，外籍教師針對不同程度的學生，使用調整語的情形，文中主要從「句法」與「言談功能」兩個角度分析外籍教師的語言使用。
有三位教授中、高級美語會話的外籍教師參與本研究，每位教師於不同層級的課堂各接受兩次錄音，總計收集到18小時的錄音語料，351頁的逐字稿，全數經過分析比較後，主要發現如下：
(1) 外籍教師之語言平均句長並未隨著學生程度越高而有顯著增加。外籍教師在中級教室之平均句長為8.197，在高級教室為8.388，p>0.05。此結果顯示，當學生程度到達中級以上，「句長上的調整」似乎不再是外籍教師採用的調整方式。
(2) 外籍教師之語法正確率在兩個層級都非常高。外籍教師在中級教室之語法正確率為99.81%，在高級教室為99.79%，在兩個層級都僅有10個錯誤句子，透過錯誤類型分析，發現中級教室中出現較多句法層面上的錯誤，而篇章層面的錯誤則全出現在高級教室中。
(3) 外籍教師之言談功能會隨學生層級不同而有調整。外籍教師在中級教室中給予較多主動的語言輸入、提供較多的發問，主要功能為傳輸語言知識；在高級教室中，教師減低發言的比例，使用較多的回饋功能。
綜合以上研究結果發現，英語為母語之外籍教師在上課時面臨不同語言程度的非母語對話者有不同的語言調整方式，在中、高級程度的班級上，「句法上的調整」不再是外籍教師的主要考量，而轉向採用「語言功能上的調整」，在教學應用上，儘管隨著學生層級的增加，外籍教師減少了「主動語言輸入」功能，而採用較多的「語言回饋」功能，但整體而言，學生發言的比例仍然偏低（中級教室9.93%；高級教室12.15%），教師應給予學生更多的口語練習機會，採用更多的回饋機制，以增加學生之溝通能力。
When addressing to non-native speaker, native speakers will modify his speech to what he thinks is simpler and easier for the non-native listener to comprehend. Such simplified register is referred to as “Foreigner Talk.” The present study aims to explore both the syntactic and discourse characteristics of FT in Taiwan’s adult English classrooms. Three measurements (1) syntactic complexity (2) grammaticality and (3) discourse functions are adopted to investigate if the interlocutor’s language proficiency affects the foreigner teacher’s language use. The data were collected from 18-hour recording of three English native speakers’ utterances in intermediate and advanced classrooms. The major findings of this study are summarized as follows:
(1) In terms of syntactic complexity, the mean words per t-unit at both levels are very similar with 8.197 at the intermediate level, and 8.388 at the advanced level. The result of t-test (p>0.05) also indicates that no significant difference is found concerning the language complexity between the two levels. It is suggested that the adjustment of language complexity may only resort to students with lower proficiency. Once the student’s proficiency goes beyond a specific level, the length of teacher’s utterances will keep in a fixed range.
(2) In terms of grammaticality, over 99.79% of the foreigners’ utterances are grammatical sentences in both language classrooms, showing that the foreigners’ language form is quite accurate. By analyzing the 20 ungrammatical utterances, it reveals that the foreigner teachers are more likely to utilize the syntactic adjustment for the lower level learners and conserve the discourse adjustment for the more advanced ones.
(3) In terms of discourse functions, Sinclair and Coulthard’s model (1992) is modified to categorize the functions of the foreigners’ utterances. It is found that the distribution of the functions varies with the development of the students’ language ability. The foreigner teachers use significantly more initiation functions to the intermediate students and provide much more responsive functions for the advanced students.
Based on the findings of this study, some pedagogical implications are addressed. It is suggested that teachers should pay more attention to their language use and consider if their adjustments of language really enhance language learning. In order to increase the learning potential, teachers are recommended to employ more judicious silence, to reduce the percentage of teacher-initiated utterances and to resist the temptation to interrupt. Also, teachers should realize that they are not only an instructor but also an interlocutor for their students at the same time. By realizing the dual roles as being a language teacher, the teacher can make language class less artificial and help learners to overcome the gap between communication in and outside the classroom.
參考文獻 REFERENCES
Arthur, B., Weiner, R., Culver, M., Lee, Y. J., & Thomas, D. (1980). The register of impersonal discourse to foreigners: Verbal adjustments to foreign accents. In D. Larsen-Freeman (Ed.), Discourse Analysis in Second Language Research. (pp.111-124). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Atkins, A. (2001). Sinclair and Coulthard’s ‘IRF’ model in a one-to-one classroom: An analysis. Retrieved November 15, 2005, from http://www.cels.bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/Atkins%204.pdf
Fox, B.A., Hayashi, M., & Jasperson, R. (1996). Resources and repair: A cross-linguistic study of syntax and repair. In E.Ochs, E. A. Schegloff, & S.A.
Thompson(Eds.), Interaction and Grammar (pp. 185-237). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. (2nd ed.).New York: Longman.
Burns, A. (2001). Analysing spoken discourse: Implications for TESOL. In A. Burns & C. Coffin (Eds.), Analysing English in a global context: A reader (pp. 123-148). London: Routledge.
Chaudron, C. (1983). Foreigner talk in the classroom- an aid to learning? In H.G. Seliger, & M.H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition (pp. 127-145). Rowley, MA : Newbury House.
Ellis, R. (2002). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Ferguson, C. A. (1975). Toward a characterization of English Foreigner Talk. Anthropological Linguistics, 17, 1-14.
Ferguson, C. A. (1981). Foreigner talk` as the name of a simplified register. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 28, 9-18.
Ferguson, C. A. (1982). Simplified register and linguistic theory. In L.K. Obler, & L. Menn (Eds.), Exceptional language and linguistics (pp.49-66). Academic Press, New York.
Francis, G., & Hunston,S. (1992). Analysing everyday conversation. In M, Coulthard (Ed.), Advances in spoken discourse analysis (pp. 123-161). London: Routledge.
Freed, B. F. (1981). Foreigner talk, baby talk, native talk. Sociology of Language, 28, 19-39.
Gais, S. J. (1977). A comparison of the classroom language of ESL teachers and their speech among peers: An exploratory syntactic analysis. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Indiana University, Bloomington.
Hasan, A.S. (2006). Analysing bilingual classroom discourse. The International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 9, 7-18.
Freed, B. F. (1983). Foreigner Talk and Conversational Interaction. In B. W. Robinett, & J. Schachter (Eds.), Second language learning: Contrastive analysis, error analysis, and related aspects (pp. 413-427). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Hatch, E. M., & Long, M. H. (1980). Discourse analysis, what`s that? In D. Larsen-Freeman (Ed.), Discourse analysis in second language research (pp. 1-40). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Henzl, V.M. (1983). Linguistic register of foreign language instruction. In B. W. Robinett, & J. Schachter (Eds.), Second language learning: Contrastive analysis, error analysis, and related aspects (pp. 395-412). Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Hughes, R. & McCarthy, M. (1998). From sentence to discourse: Discourse grammar and English language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 32, 263-287.
Larsen-Freeman, D. (1980). Discourse analysis in second language research. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Lin, H.Y. (2004). Teacher Talk of Native and Non-native English Teachers in EFL Classrooms. Unpublished Master Degree Thesis, Ming Chung University.
Long, M. H. (1981). Questions in foreigner talk discourse. Language Learning, 31, 135-57.
Long, M. H., & Sato, C. (1983). Classroom foreigner talk discourse: Forms and functions of teachers` questions. In H.G. Seliger, & M.H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition (pp. 268-286). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.
Malouf, R. (1995). Towards an analysis of multi-party discourse. Retrieved February 10, 2006, from http://odur.let.rug.nl/~malouf/papers/talk.pdf
McCarthy, M. (1991). Discourse analysis for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Murdoch, Y. (1999). Classroom Interaction in a Korean university English language class. Retrieved September 7, 2006, from http://www.cels.bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/yvette1.pdf#search=%22classroom%20interaction%20in%20a%20korean%22
Owen, D. (1996). Do teachers modify their speech according to the proficiency of their students? Retrieved October 7, 2005, from http://www.cels.bham.ac.uk/ELTED/Vol2Issue1/owen.pdf
Ravid, D., Olshtain, E., & Ze`elon, R. (2003 ). Gradeschoolers` linguistic and pragmatic speech adaptation to native and non-native interlocution. Journal of Pragmatics: An Interdisciplinary Journal of Language Studies, 35 (1), 71-99.
Riggenbach, H.(1990). Discourse analysis and spoken language instruction. Annual Review of Applied Linguistic, 11, 152-163.
Schinke-Llano, L.A.(1983). Foreigner talk in content classrooms. In H.G. Seliger, & M.H. Long (Eds.), Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition (pp. 146-165). Rowley, MA : Newbury House.
Simpson, J. (1996). Early language contact varieties in South Australia. Australian Journal of Linguistics, 16(2), 169-207.
Sinclair, J. & Coulthard, M. (1992a). Towards an analysis of discourse. In M, Coulthard (Ed.), Advances in spoken discourse analysis (pp. 1-34). London: Routledge.
Sinclair, J. and Coulthard, M. (1992b). Priorities in discourse analysis. In M, Coulthard (Ed.), Advances in spoken discourse analysis (pp. 79-88). London: Routledge..
Snow, C., R. van Eeden, & Muysken, P. (1981). The interactional origins of foreigner talk: municipal employees and foreign workers. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 28, 81-91.
Suter, C. (2001). Exploring teachers’ questions and feedback. Retrieved September 5, 2006, from http://www.cels. bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/suter1.pdf#search=% 22exploring%20teachers`%20questions%20and%20%22
Takahashi-Breines, H. (2002). The role of teacher-talk in a dual language immersion third grade classroom. Bilingual Research Journal, 26(2), 213-235.
Tsui Bik-may, Amy (1985). Analyzing input and interaction in second language classrooms. RELC Journal, 16, 8-32.
Tsui Bik-may, Amy (1987). An analysis of different types of interaction in ESL classroom discourse. IRAL, 4, 336-353.
Farooq, U. M. (2000). Examining a male teacher’s attention in a
Mixed-sex EL Japanese high school classroom based on the Sinclair-Coulthard model. Unpublished Master Degree Thesis, University of Birmingham, U.K.
Walsh, S. (2002). Construction or obstruction: teacher talk and learner involvement in the EFL classroom. Language Teaching Research, 6(1), 3-23.
Wang, W.C. (2001). An Analysis of Teacher Talk in Child EFL Classroom. Unpublished Master Degree Thesis, National Chengchi University.
Willis, D. (1992). Caught in the act: using the rank scale to address problems of delicacy. In M, Coulthard (Ed.), Advances in spoken discourse analysis (pp. 111-122). London: Routledge.
Yamaguchi, C. (2002). Towards international English in EFL classrooms in Japan. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. VIII, No. 1, January 2002. Retrieved November 15, 2005, from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Yamaguchi-Language.html
Yasukata,Y., Long, M.H. & Steven, R. (1994). The effects of simplified and elaborated texts on foreign language reading comprehension. Language Learning, 44(2), 189-219.
戴煒棟、李明（1998）。調整語話語初探。上海外國語大學學報，3，1-6頁。
描述 碩士
國立政治大學
語言學研究所
91555003
95
資料來源 http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0915550032
資料類型 thesis
dc.contributor.advisor 黃麗儀zh_TW
dc.contributor.advisor Huang, Li-yien_US
dc.contributor.author (Authors) 孫于絜zh_TW
dc.contributor.author (Authors) Sun,Yu-chiehen_US
dc.creator (作者) 孫于絜zh_TW
dc.creator (作者) Sun,Yu-chiehen_US
dc.date (日期) 2006en_US
dc.date.accessioned 17-Sep-2009 16:27:53 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.available 17-Sep-2009 16:27:53 (UTC+8)-
dc.date.issued (上傳時間) 17-Sep-2009 16:27:53 (UTC+8)-
dc.identifier (Other Identifiers) G0915550032en_US
dc.identifier.uri (URI) https://nccur.lib.nccu.edu.tw/handle/140.119/33392-
dc.description (描述) 碩士zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 國立政治大學zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 語言學研究所zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 91555003zh_TW
dc.description (描述) 95zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) 當母語者與非母語者在進行溝通時，母語者通常會使用較為簡化的語言形式，此種語言形式研究者稱之為「調整語」。本文旨在探討在台灣的成人美語教室中，外籍教師針對不同程度的學生，使用調整語的情形，文中主要從「句法」與「言談功能」兩個角度分析外籍教師的語言使用。
有三位教授中、高級美語會話的外籍教師參與本研究，每位教師於不同層級的課堂各接受兩次錄音，總計收集到18小時的錄音語料，351頁的逐字稿，全數經過分析比較後，主要發現如下：
(1) 外籍教師之語言平均句長並未隨著學生程度越高而有顯著增加。外籍教師在中級教室之平均句長為8.197，在高級教室為8.388，p>0.05。此結果顯示，當學生程度到達中級以上，「句長上的調整」似乎不再是外籍教師採用的調整方式。
(2) 外籍教師之語法正確率在兩個層級都非常高。外籍教師在中級教室之語法正確率為99.81%，在高級教室為99.79%，在兩個層級都僅有10個錯誤句子，透過錯誤類型分析，發現中級教室中出現較多句法層面上的錯誤，而篇章層面的錯誤則全出現在高級教室中。
(3) 外籍教師之言談功能會隨學生層級不同而有調整。外籍教師在中級教室中給予較多主動的語言輸入、提供較多的發問，主要功能為傳輸語言知識；在高級教室中，教師減低發言的比例，使用較多的回饋功能。
綜合以上研究結果發現，英語為母語之外籍教師在上課時面臨不同語言程度的非母語對話者有不同的語言調整方式，在中、高級程度的班級上，「句法上的調整」不再是外籍教師的主要考量，而轉向採用「語言功能上的調整」，在教學應用上，儘管隨著學生層級的增加，外籍教師減少了「主動語言輸入」功能，而採用較多的「語言回饋」功能，但整體而言，學生發言的比例仍然偏低（中級教室9.93%；高級教室12.15%），教師應給予學生更多的口語練習機會，採用更多的回饋機制，以增加學生之溝通能力。		zh_TW
dc.description.abstract (摘要) When addressing to non-native speaker, native speakers will modify his speech to what he thinks is simpler and easier for the non-native listener to comprehend. Such simplified register is referred to as “Foreigner Talk.” The present study aims to explore both the syntactic and discourse characteristics of FT in Taiwan’s adult English classrooms. Three measurements (1) syntactic complexity (2) grammaticality and (3) discourse functions are adopted to investigate if the interlocutor’s language proficiency affects the foreigner teacher’s language use. The data were collected from 18-hour recording of three English native speakers’ utterances in intermediate and advanced classrooms. The major findings of this study are summarized as follows:
(1) In terms of syntactic complexity, the mean words per t-unit at both levels are very similar with 8.197 at the intermediate level, and 8.388 at the advanced level. The result of t-test (p>0.05) also indicates that no significant difference is found concerning the language complexity between the two levels. It is suggested that the adjustment of language complexity may only resort to students with lower proficiency. Once the student’s proficiency goes beyond a specific level, the length of teacher’s utterances will keep in a fixed range.
(2) In terms of grammaticality, over 99.79% of the foreigners’ utterances are grammatical sentences in both language classrooms, showing that the foreigners’ language form is quite accurate. By analyzing the 20 ungrammatical utterances, it reveals that the foreigner teachers are more likely to utilize the syntactic adjustment for the lower level learners and conserve the discourse adjustment for the more advanced ones.
(3) In terms of discourse functions, Sinclair and Coulthard’s model (1992) is modified to categorize the functions of the foreigners’ utterances. It is found that the distribution of the functions varies with the development of the students’ language ability. The foreigner teachers use significantly more initiation functions to the intermediate students and provide much more responsive functions for the advanced students.
Based on the findings of this study, some pedagogical implications are addressed. It is suggested that teachers should pay more attention to their language use and consider if their adjustments of language really enhance language learning. In order to increase the learning potential, teachers are recommended to employ more judicious silence, to reduce the percentage of teacher-initiated utterances and to resist the temptation to interrupt. Also, teachers should realize that they are not only an instructor but also an interlocutor for their students at the same time. By realizing the dual roles as being a language teacher, the teacher can make language class less artificial and help learners to overcome the gap between communication in and outside the classroom.		en_US
dc.description.tableofcontents Page
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS i
CHINESE ABSTRACT ii
ENGLISH ABSTRACT iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS vii
LIST OF TABLES ix

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Background and Motivation 1
1.2 Purpose of the Study 4
1.3 Research Questions 4
1.4 Organization of the Study 5

CHAPTER 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 7
2.1 Foreigner Talk as a Simplified Register 7
2.2 Types of Adjustment 9
2.2.1 Linguistic Adjustment 10
2.2.2 Conversational Adjustment 13
2.3 Foreigner Talk in the Classroom 15
2.4 Classroom Discourse Analysis 18

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 24
3.1 The Setting 25
3.2 The Participants and Curriculum 25
3.3 The Procedure 26
3.4 The Measurements 27
3.4.1 Syntactic Complexity 27
3.4.2 Grammaticality 28
3.4.3 Discourse Functions 30

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 42
4.1 Syntactic Complexity 41
4.2 Grammaticality 44
4.2.1 The Classification and Distribution of the Ungrammatical Utterances 45
4.2.2 The Context of the Ungrammatical Utterances 49
4.3 Discourse Functions 51
4.3.1 The Frequency Ranking of Discourse Functions 51
4.3.2 Functions across Levels 54
4.3.2.1 Teacher’s Initiation 58
4.3.2.2 Teacher’s Response 78
4.3.3 The Distribution of the More Frequent Functions at the Two Levels 85
4.4 Answers to the Research Questions 88

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION 92
5.1 Summary of the Findings 92
5.2 Pedagogical Implications 94
5.3 Limitations of the Present Study and Suggestions for Further Research 96

REFERENCES 99
Appendix 1: The hierarchical structure of Sinclair and Coulthard’s model 104
Appendix 2: Time Table of Classroom Observation 107
Appendix 3: The Coding System of the Functions 108
Appendix 4: Lesson transcript 109

List of Tables
Table 1 Grammatical features of foreigner talk 10
Table 2 Linguistic adjustments 11
Table 3 The Acts of Sinclair and Coulthard’s model (1992) 30
Table 4 A Comparison of Sinclair and Coulthard’s model & The revised model 37
Table 5 The Twenty Acts and Examples 38
Table 6 The Results of Words Per T-unit 41
Table 7 The Results of Grammaticality 44
Table 8 Categorization of the Ungrammatical Utterances 46
Table 9 The Frequency Ranking of Discourse Functions 52
Table 10 Functions Across Levels 55
Table 11 Occurrences and Percentages of Teachers’ and Students’ Utterances- 57
Table 12 The Percentages of “Elicitation” and the sub-acts 65
Table 13 Distribution of the Functions 86		zh_TW
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dc.source.uri (資料來源) http://thesis.lib.nccu.edu.tw/record/#G0915550032en_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 調整語zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 教師語言zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) 教室篇章分析zh_TW
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Foreigner Talken_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Teacher Talken_US
dc.subject (關鍵詞) Classroom Discourseen_US
dc.title (題名) 外語教室中外國教師調整語之探討zh_TW
dc.title (題名) An Investigation of Foreigner Talk in EFL Classroomen_US
dc.type (資料類型) thesisen
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) REFERENCESzh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Arthur, B., Weiner, R., Culver, M., Lee, Y. J., & Thomas, D. (1980). The register of impersonal discourse to foreigners: Verbal adjustments to foreign accents. In D. Larsen-Freeman (Ed.), Discourse Analysis in Second Language Research. (pp.111-124). Rowley, MA: Newbury House.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Atkins, A. (2001). Sinclair and Coulthard’s ‘IRF’ model in a one-to-one classroom: An analysis. Retrieved November 15, 2005, from http://www.cels.bham.ac.uk/resources/essays/Atkins%204.pdfzh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Fox, B.A., Hayashi, M., & Jasperson, R. (1996). Resources and repair: A cross-linguistic study of syntax and repair. In E.Ochs, E. A. Schegloff, & S.A.zh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Thompson(Eds.), Interaction and Grammar (pp. 185-237). Cambridge: Cambridge University Presszh_TW
dc.relation.reference (參考文獻) Brown, H. D. (1994). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy. (2nd ed.).New York: Longman.zh_TW
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